Beyond Integral Mission: Fresh Voices from Latin America

By Daniel Clark

In the 1970s, Latin American theologians were instrumental in developing the concept of integral mission. This volume explores how contemporary Latin American theologians are building on the legacy of integral mission, and the controversies it raised, to reflect on a wide range of issues such as the economy, culture, the environment, discrimination, and transcultural missions. Drawing on authors from across the continent, this volume offers a valuable insight into the diversity and richness of current Latin American missiological reflection.

• Language: English
• Publisher: Regnum Books International
• Release date: Jun 13, 2022
• ISBN: 9781914454615

Book preview

1. Moving Beyond the Golden Age in Latin American Evangelical Theology

Daniel Clark

In the year 2000, during my undergraduate studies, I took a module on Contextual Theology. As part of the course, we were assigned Gustavo Gutiérrez’s classic, A Theology of Liberation.¹ As a Latin American it was hard to recognise the society Gutiérrez was describing, and many of his proposals came across as dated. Years later, my college published a journal with a collection of student essays. The article on Latin America focused on liberation theology, especially what was put forward by Gustavo Gutiérrez.² I was left with the question, has nothing new emerged in Latin American theology and missiology since the 1970s?

This volume seeks to provide an affirmative answer to this question. It introduces a series of younger missiological thinkers reflecting on the varied Latin American contexts. Authors write from a diversity of geographical regions, ranging from Mexico to Argentina and a diversity of ecclesial backgrounds, but all broadly write from within the Latin American evangelical theological tradition.

Hence, it is necessary to define what is meant by the term evangelical in Latin America. As in post-Reformation Europe, it is generally used to refer to those trinitarian Christians united in their suspicion and rejection of the Catholic Church.³ Although it is common in English language scholarship to treat Pentecostals as distinct from evangelicals, in Latin America Pentecostals are considered evangelicals, and thus most evangelicals are Pentecostal. Likewise, all Episcopalians, Lutherans, and Presbyterians are considered evangelicals, irrespective of their theology, especially as the missionaries who founded these denominations usually came from their evangelical wings in North America.

Nonetheless, it is hard to move beyond this general statement to provide clear examples of what constitutes evangelical identity in Latin America. In the United Kingdom, the term evangelical is often used to imply a common theological core of conversionism, activism, biblicism and crucicentrism,⁴ yet this does not apply in Latin America where there is little awareness of having a shared theology. The evangelical scene is diverse and fragmented, with much competition between and within denominations.

Efforts to increase evangelical unity and form representative institutions have had varied levels of success across the continent. Where evangelicals have faced the pressure of hegemonic Catholicism and repressive governments, these institutions have fared better than in contexts of religious freedom. For example, in Peru, the heyday of the National Council of Churches, CONEP, came first in the struggle for religious freedom and then during the persecution of Pentecostal Quechua speaking churches by Marxist guerrillas and the Peruvian armed forces.⁵ The transition to democracy and greater religious freedom has led to a weakening of CONEP, with many of the major denominations withdrawing their membership.

Latin American evangelicalism can be better understood in terms of the metaphor of an extended family. Therefore, there are common traits which characterise membership of this family although not all will be possessed by all members. Opposition to the Roman Catholic Church is a key family characteristic. This anti-Roman Catholicism is expressed in opposition to the Pope, Marian spirituality and the cult of the saints and the rejection of any cultural traits or festivals associated with Catholicism. Nonetheless, recent years have seen a thawing of attitudes towards Catholicism, especially in academic circles, and thus, one of our contributors, Davi Lin, seeks to appropriate the theological legacy of Augustine of Hippo.

Latin American evangelicals generally hold the Bible in high esteem. This does not necessarily translate itself into a concern with the literal meaning of the Biblical text, but rather with the use of the Bible as a source of symbols and images and it is a mistake to label Latin Americans as fundamentalists. This repertoire of Biblical images is often expressed in music, which is arguably one of the main sources of a common evangelical identity. Older forms of technology, such as radio stations and CDs combine with newer platforms such as video sharing sites and social media to disseminate the latest worship songs among evangelicals, transcending geographical and denominational boundaries.⁶

Two main ‘clans’ can be identified within this diverse evangelical family: the historical churches that arrived in the nineteenth century, and the Pentecostal churches which emerged in the twentieth century. Although there are difficulties in defining Latin American Pentecostalism,⁷ key elements include the sense of having experienced the work of the Holy Spirit, especially through the exercise of spiritual gifts such as prophecy, healing and speaking in tongues, the encouragement of a supernatural worldview and the use of music to provide a sense of occasion, even spectacle.⁸ Yet, at a congregational level differences between Pentecostals and historical evangelicals are not always clear cut as there have been Pentecostal breakaways from the latter and many historical evangelical churches have taken on features of Pentecostal liturgy. Similarly, some middle-class Pentecostal churches resemble Baptists and Presbyterians in requiring academically trained pastors and a structured liturgy. Freston provides a nuanced perspective in defining historical evangelicals and Pentecostals as ideal types at the two extremes of a continuum on which most real cases are a highly variable and creative mix.⁹ To further complicate matters, since the 1960s there has been an emergence of indigenous Pentecostal churches, with a strong emphasis on prosperity theology, aggressive approaches to spiritual warfare and controversial fundraising methods. These churches are often referred to as Neo-Pentecostal,¹⁰ and have become heavily involved in national media and politics, causing much controversy among evangelicals.

The Golden Age of Latin American Theology

Daniel Salinas defines the 1970s as the golden decade of Latin American Evangelical theology.¹¹ Salinas follows the well-established path of documenting the emergence of the Latin American Theological Fraternity-FTL and its influential role during that decade, in dialogue both with Liberation Theology and more conservative theologians from North America and Europe.

Often, talk about golden ages is a matter of nostalgia and rose-tinted spectacles. For English football fans lamenting over forty years without a major trophy, it is easy to forget that the golden age of English football was heavily indebted to the eyesight of a Russian linesman. Yet, some golden ages did in fact exist. For Brazilian football fans, now accustomed to routine elimination in World Cup quarter finals to European opposition, it is galling to remember that Brazilian football had not one golden age, but two, when Pelé, Garrincha and Rivelino (1958–1970) and Romario, Ronaldo and Rivaldo (1994–2002) regularly reduced Europeans to tears.

Likewise, the 1970s can be genuinely considered a golden age of Latin American Evangelical Theology. During this decade luminaries such as Orlando Costas, René Padilla and Samuel Escobar were creatively engaging with the Latin American context and influencing global evangelicalism thereby helping develop the concept of integral mission theology. Aided by their friendship with John Stott, Padilla and Escobar had a profound impact on the Lausanne Covenant, a document which has acquired the status of a missiological creed for many Latin American evangelicals.

The chapter by Regina Fernandes Sanches is written as a continuation of this heritage. Writing as a member of the Fraternity’s board, Sanches emphasises that integral mission theology is an example of evangelical mission theology. For Sanches the key to understanding integral mission theology is that it seeks to provide a new way of doing theology in Latin America, combining a commitment to the full scope of the gospel’s message with a thorough and holistic understanding of the Latin American context.

Changes Since the Golden Age

Nonetheless, there have been considerable changes to the Latin American context from the golden decade of the 1970s. Politically, there has been a transition from military dictatorships to fragile democracies, plagued by instability and allegations of corruption. Various authors have documented the struggles that liberation theology has had with the transition to democracy, with the transnational Catholic church no longer required as a haven for progressive thought in the face of state sponsored violence.¹² The chapter by Daniel Clark suggests that a similar process is occurring with integral mission theology in the face of the challenges of widespread political corruption, urban violence, and polarisation over issues of sexuality. The chapter ends on a sombre tone, with the author uncertain that integral mission theology will successfully face these challenges.

The last five decades have been a period of sustained evangelical growth throughout Latin America, albeit varying across countries. This growth has led to a diversity of denominations and a diversity of theological traditions. One consequence has been the decline of the hegemony of the FTL. While the Fraternity continues to be a significant theological actor, it no longer has the role of gatekeeper of evangelical theological production as could be seen in the 1970s. For example, the Reformed theological tradition, with its own network of journals, publishing houses and conferences is increasingly important within Latin America. Although only a small proportion of Latin American evangelicals belong to Reformed denominations, many are seminary teachers and leaders of mission agencies. At times, as the chapter by Clark indicates, Reformed theologians can be hostile in their attitude towards integral mission. Nonetheless, the chapter by Josué Reichow in this volume strikes a more conciliatory tone, discussing how a Reformational approach to culture can provide a positive model for Latin American Christians.

The last fifty years have also witnessed exponential economic growth in Latin America. As such, millions of Latin Americans have been lifted out of extreme poverty. Nonetheless, this has not always led to full social inclusion, and the benefits of this economic growth continue to be unevenly distributed, excluding many indigenous communities and Latin Americans of African heritage. The long-term economic effects of the Covid-19 pandemic are still uncertain, but the economy is undoubtedly going to be a major issue in Latin American societies in the coming years. Thus, in his chapter Martin Ocaña laments the lack of sustained economic reflection by Latin American theologians. Affirming the materiality of life, he emphasises the need for greater dialogue between theologians and economists.

This combination of sustained evangelical and economic growth has led to churches becoming powerful political institutions in many countries. Consequently, evangelical engagement with politics has led to evangelical involvement in numerous political scandals and acrimonious political debates among evangelicals. Lucas Magnin argues in his chapter that this Constantinian turn by many evangelical churches is a betrayal of the kingdom values incarnated by Jesus in the gospels and urges evangelicals to reject using the state to carry out their mission. Davi Lin is concerned with the way technology and social media have reduced the capacity for dialogue among evangelicals. In his chapter, he presents Augustine’s theology, especially expressed in The Confessions as a resource to enable evangelicals to work for better dialogue and unity.

These recent changes have led to new issues in Latin America and new forms of exclusion. The twenty-first century has seen migration become a major theme in many countries, with the migration of many Latin Americans to the United States and Europe and the mass exodus of Venezuelans towards other Latin American countries. Alejandra Ortiz writes from Tijuana, on the border between Mexico and the United States, where many short-term missions teams arrive as religious tourists seeking to consume a missionary experience, and churches struggle to minister to the many caravans of Central American migrants. Ortiz explores ways in which it is possible to cease to cross borders as strangers and seek, with humility, to become friends. In her chapter, Délnia Bastos turns to the Pentateuch, discerning narratives and principals which can help evangelical churches engage with the refugee crises.

Arguably, one of the most significant migratory movements in Latin American history was the forced migration caused by the slave trade. The legacy of slavery and centuries of oppression against those of African heritage means that racism is a significant problem in Latin American countries. The myth of Latin American countries as new, racially harmonious states has meant that sustained reflection on race has often been avoided, especially among Christians. Nonetheless, globalisation has exposed Latin Americans to the protests against racism in North America in 2020 and the controversies generated by Critical Race Theory and the Black Lives Matter movement. This has encouraged many black South Americans to take a closer look at forms of discrimination in their own societies. Ultimato, a leading Brazilian publisher in theology and mission convened a group of authors to reflect on racism in Brazilian society and churches. What emerged was a contextual, biblical reflection, providing fresh insights into a much-discussed topic. Ultimato generously granted permission to translate and include this material which urges Christians to recognise and address racism, while celebrating diversity and reconciliation.

Spanish and Portuguese colonial presence in Latin America resulted in death and oppression for indigenous populations and the devastation of the natural environment. Even today, oppression of indigenous peoples and environmental problems are closely related. For example, in Brazil, environmental degradation has grown exponentially under current President Jair Bolsonaro. This often involves lands occupied by indigenous populations. When he was a congressman, Bolsonaro made a parliamentary speech lamenting the incompetence of the Brazilian cavalry in dealing with indigenous populations in the nineteenth century, saying, the United States cavalry was indeed competent, it killed them in the past and they no longer have this problem in their country.¹³ Likewise, in Peru, conflicts between indigenous groups and government authorities often involve the exploitation of natural resources. Writing from the Andean country, Rut Pérez-Saldarriaga pleads for her fellow Christians to no longer ignore the suffering of the environment and indigenous persons.

Disability is a significant, albeit often neglected, form of exclusion in Latin America. Research suggests that up to twelve percent of Latin Americans suffered from at least one form of disability between 2001–2010, a figure of at least sixty-six million people, but possibly more than eighty-five.¹⁴ Julio Gonzáles writes as a representative of the millions of Latin Americans who face visual incapacity. In an open letter he shares the challenges he faces to read and engage in academic research, and the various ways in which he faces exclusion from theological dialogue. He urges his fellow theologians to work towards including others such as himself in the production of theological material.

Samuel Escobar has long championed the need for mission from everywhere to everywhere. Hence it is encouraging to see the growth of missionary movements within Latin American countries. Felipe Fulanetto provides an update on the surprising growth of the Brazilian missionary movement, which has exceeded both populational growth in Brazil and evangelical growth. Nonetheless, Fulanetto warns that there is no room for triumphalism or complacency, as questions still surround the sustainability of this growth.

This emerging missionary movement needs to face deep missiological issues. One challenge is that Latin Americans have a limited exposure to religious pluralism, as the diversity of religious options in Latin America is predominantly Christian. One major issue is the interaction with the great religious traditions of the world, such as Islam, Hinduism, and Buddhism. Marcos Amado’s chapter expresses a desire to move beyond simplistic judgements, which often reduce all non-Christian religions to the category of demonic. He emphasises the need for a fair and balanced assessment of Muhammed, to provide an accurate Christian assessment of the founder of Islam.

Conclusion

A common theme across the different contributions to this volume is that theological labour requires engagement with one’s context. There is a strong autobiographical tone in many chapters as, in Latin America, missiology is done on the move. Contributors to this volume are also practitioners, juggling their academic research alongside varied ministerial commitments. Theological reflection takes place on long taxi and bus journeys, while suffering racial discrimination, encountering migrants at the border, or supporting victims of environmental disasters. Rather than missiology being a sub-discipline of theology, theology becomes missionary oriented, serving God’s people as they seek to carry out God’s mission in the complex Latin American reality.

These chapters together demonstrate the variety and vitality of contemporary Latin American theological and missiological reflection. There is indeed life beyond the golden decade! Nonetheless, the attentive reader will finish reading this volume feeling that they have only scratched the surface of contemporary Latin American reflection. Probably, much of the best missiology and theology in Latin America is taking place in local churches and ministries and remains unpublished and unshared over social media. Hopefully, the coming years will witness an increasing discovery of the wealth that Latin American Christians have to offer to the mission of the global church.

¹ G. Gutiérrez, A Theology of Liberation: History, Politics, and Salvation: Revised Edition with a New Introduction, Maryknoll: Orbis, 1988.

² J. Clarke, ‘Friend or foe? An evangelical engaging Latin American liberation theology’, Encounters 27 (2007). Available online at https://encountersmissionjournal.files.wordpress.com/2011/03/friend_or_foe_27.pdf, accessed 26 April 2021.

³ W. Shea, The Lion and the Lamb: Evangelicals and Catholics in America (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004), p.12. See also M Brinkerhoff and R. Bibby, ‘Circulation of the Saints in South America: A Comparative Study’, Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 24.1 (1985), p. 44.

⁴ D. Bebbington, Evangelicalism in Modern Britain: A History from the 1730s to the 1980s (London: Routledge, 1989), p. 4.

⁵ See for example T. Gutiérrez Sánchez, Evangélicos, democracia y nueva sociedad: Ensayos de historia política (Lima: Ediciones AHP, 2005), pp. 175–208.

⁶ An example of how music helps form a sense of evangelical identity in the context of a favela is narrated in M. Oosterbaan, ‘Spiritual Attunement: Pentecostal Radio in the Soundscape of a Favela in Rio de Janeiro’, Social Text 25.3 (2008), pp. 123–145.

⁷ See K. Westmeier, Protestant Pentecostalism in Latin America: A Study in the Dynamics of Mission (Cranbury: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1999), p. 16.

⁸ A. Anderson, An Introduction to Pentecostalism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), p. 256 and J. Passos, ‘Teogonias Urbanas: Os Pentecostais na Passagem do Rural ao Urbano’, São Paulo em Perspectiva 14.4 (2000), p. 126.

⁹ P. Freston ‘Neo-Pentecostalism in Brazil: Problems of Definition and the Struggle for Hegemony’, Arch. De Sc. Soc. Des. Rel 105 (1999), p. 152.

¹⁰ For example, in the chapter by Felipe Fulanetto in this volume.

¹¹ See D. Salinas, Latin American Theology in the 1970s: The Golden Decade, Religion in the Americas Series Volume 9, Leiden; Brill, 2009.

¹² P. Beyer, Religion and Globalization (London: Sage, 1994), pp. 153–155, D. Martin, ‘Secularisation and the Future of Christianity’, Journal of Contemporary Religion 20.2 (2005), p. 151, V. Steuernagel, ‘The Relevance and Effects of European Academic Theology on Theological Education in the Third World’, The Evangelical Review of Theology 27.3 (2003), p. 208 and P. Freston, 'Researching the Heartland of Pentecostalism: Latin Americans at Home and Abroad', Fieldwork in Religion 3.2 (2008), p. 131.

¹³ Quoted in C. Rodriguez Garavito and C. Barquero Díaz, Conflictos socioambientales en América Latina, digital edition, Buenos Aires: Editores Argentina, 2020.

¹⁴ Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean, Social Panorama of Latin America 2012 (Santiago: United Nations, 2013), pp. 184–186.

2. Integral Mission Theology as a Latin American Evangelical Theology

Regina Fernandes Sanches

C. René Padilla and Gustavo Gutiérrez both describe a new way of doing theology, emerging in Latin America in the second half of the twentieth century.¹ Described as contextual, Third World or even radical, it evolved out of new forms of historical awareness and theological epistemology in the so-called Third World. In these unusual circumstances, theologians such as James Cone, Kosuke Koyama, John Samuel Mbiti, Kazoh Kitamori, Gustavo Gutiérrez, Leonardo Boff, Carlos René Padilla, Orlando Costas, and others sought to address their different socio-historical and cultural contexts. Despite their diversity, these scholars shared the desire to base their theological labour on contextual analysis.

The significance of this epistemological shift is better understood through comparison with classical theology. Classical theologians chose philosophy as their main dialogue partner and mediator for conveying theological knowledge. In contrast, contextual theologians include other forms of knowledge as dialogue partners. For liberation theologians, their concern with context and concrete reality led them to prefer social sciences rather than philosophy. The main innovation lay in subordinating the theoretical task of doctrinal reflection and systematisation of knowledge to the formulation of a new Christian praxis in the world.

Integral mission theology is part of this wider theological shift. It offers an evangelical approach in which the church’s presence in the world provides the starting point for a contextual understanding of theology. It focuses on the presence and action of the kingdom of God in the world, providing an alternative to the futuristic and heavenly approach of prevailing eschatological perspectives. This text reflects on this important theological development analysing the historical origins and development of the Latin American integral mission movement.

Integral Mission Theology as a Latin American Theology

The roots of the integral mission movement lie in theological reflection concerning Latin America’s social context in the 1960s. This was often an informal process, as theologians reflected on their diverse pastoral activities, but also involved more deliberate activities such as the organisation of conferences, theological publications, and participation in global conversations. We can, however, consider the formation of the FTL – Fraternidade Teológica Latinoamericana (Latin American Theological Fraternity), in the city of Cochabamba, Bolivia in 1970 as the official starting date of the integral mission movement. The FTL’s articles of association declare its purpose and express the commitment of its founders:

1) To promote reflection on the gospel and its meaning for human beings and society in Latin America and thereby stimulate evangelical reflection on issues which are part of daily life in Latin America. We recognise the Bible as God’s normative word for this reflection, listening under the Holy Spirit’s guidance to the biblical message with regards to the relative aspects of our concrete situation.

2) To construct a platform to promote dialogue between thinkers who confess Jesus Christ as Lord and Saviour and who are willing to reflect biblically to communicate the gospel in Latin America’s different cultures.

3) Contribute to the life and mission of evangelical churches in Latin America, without intending to speak in their name or seek to become their voice in the Latin American context.²

Integral mission is an example of Latin American theology but, unlike liberation theology, comes from historical evangelicalism’s doctrinal and theological tradition. It lies in continuity with traditional protestant missionary efforts in the region, but is also a critical response to this heritage, seeking to engage with the diverse struggles for social transformation. Unlike liberation theology, professionals from a wide variety of fields participated in the foundation of the FTL. Thus, while in liberation theology we encounter an almost exclusive emphasis on social analytic mediation, integral mission is characterised by a multidisciplinary dialogue. This leads integral mission theology to have its own identity, distinct from liberation theology and as an evangelical movement concerned with the nature and practice of the mission of the church.

Liberation theology and integral mission theology were the main Latin American theological currents in the late twentieth century. Both emerged in a regional context where socio-economic problems and government policies accentuated social inequalities and widespread poverty. Their roots lie in the emergence of missiology as a theological discipline in the wake of nineteenth and twentieth century discussions within the protestant mission movement. Similarly, both liberation theology and integral mission theology are influenced by contemporary theological trends in Europe and North America such as the theology of hope, political theology, secular theology, and the social gospel. Currently Latin American theological diversity has expanded to include Pentecostalism, Latin American public theology, and postcolonial theologies.

Beyond this shared social, historical, and cultural context, the concept of a hermeneutical circle provides Latin American theologies with a further unifying element. In Latin American theology the hermeneutical circle has three pillars: reality, Scripture, and praxis, known as seeing, judging, and acting in liberation theology. This allows theology to be both open and critical, to be renewed