Achieving Inclusive Education in the Caribbean and Beyond: From Philosophy to Praxis

This book offers an international perspective of philosophical, conceptual and praxis-oriented issues that impinge on achieving education for all students. It sheds light on the historical, systemic, structural, organizational, and attitudinal barriers that continue to be antithetical to the philosophy and practice of inclusive education within the Caribbean. The first section of the book examines how globalized views of inclusion informed by philosophical ideas from the North have influenced and continue to influence the equity in education agenda in the region. The second section considers how exclusion and marginalization still occur across selected Caribbean islands. It provides both quantitative and qualitative data about the nature and experience of exclusion in selected Caribbean islands, the UK and USA. The third section tackles the practical realities of transforming education systems in the Caribbean for inclusion. In particular, it identifies teacher practices as the mainsite of interrogation that needs to be tackled if inclusion is to be successful. The fourth and final section examines the contribution of principals and exemplars to the development and advocacy for inclusive education. It discusses how educational leadership is understood, as well as the role of school principals in making inclusion a reality in schools, the challenges experienced and the qualities of education leaders.

 

• Language: English
• Publisher: Springer
• Release date: May 28, 2019
• ISBN: 9783030157692

Book preview

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019

Stacey N. J. Blackman, Dennis A.  Conrad and Launcelot I.  Brown (eds.)Achieving Inclusive Education in the Caribbean and Beyondhttps://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-15769-2_1

1. Introduction

Stacey N. J. Blackman¹  , Dennis A. Conrad²   and Launcelot I. Brown³  

(1)

School of Education, The University of the West Indies Cave Hill Campus, Bridgetown, Barbados

(2)

School of Education and Professional Studies, State University of New York at Potsdam, Potsdam, NY, USA

(3)

Department of Educational Foundation and LeadershipSchool of Education, Duquesne University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA

Stacey N. J. Blackman (Corresponding author)

Email: [e-mail]

Dennis A. Conrad

Email: [e-mail]

Launcelot I. Brown

Email: [e-mail]

Keywords

Inclusive educationThe CaribbeanEquity in education

Achieving Inclusive Education in the Caribbean and Beyond: From Philosophy to Praxis presents an evolutionary discourse on the philosophical and conceptual ideas that have shaped how inclusion is practiced in the English-speaking Caribbean, selected states in the United States of America, and England. The authors in this book by no means claim that UNESCO’s vision of inclusion and equity in education agenda has been achieved. However, they do remain acutely aware of the factors that facilitate and hinder progress towards obtaining equity in education and are optimistic about the prospects for inclusive education in their respective contexts. In this volume, we define the term inclusive education in its broadest sense in that inclusion is about the education of all students regardless of age, culture, disability, ethnicity, race, socioeconomic status, or sexual orientation. Research by Ainscow, Booth, and Dyson (2006) commenting on definitions of inclusion noted that "Experience has taught us that many different views of inclusion exist in the field (Ainscow, Farrell, & Tweddle, 2000) and there is no one perspective on inclusion within a single country or school (Ainscow et al., 2006, p. 14; Booth & Ainscow, 1998). A similar observation can be made for defining other terms like marginalization, poverty, culture, intersectionality, and decolonization (which can also be diffuse). Authors in this volume have defined and interpreted these terms in very specific ways in their chapters based on their locales, academic disciplines, understandings, and philosophical grounding. We welcome those various understandings and hope that they would produce more points of convergence and clarity rather than divergence and ambiguity in the literature.

The history of the movement towards inclusion in the English-Speaking Caribbean is rooted in its colonial past. In the emerging economies of the Caribbean, we remain cognizant of how the historical arcs of colonialism, marginalization, religion, and the resultant sociocultural context of education shape the discourse on inclusive practice in education. Authors in this volume will no doubt examine the organization of schooling in many English-speaking Caribbean islands. Schooling is itself an artifact of a violent colonial past and compromise between state and religion. The continuing effect of this history and compromise is that the education system in general, and schools in particular, have still maintained a hierarchy of tiered education provision (James, 2010). Schools are organized to reproduce the social stratification present in many Caribbean societies. Efforts to facilitate educational reform and equity in postcolonial societies have been less than vibrant.

The risk of exclusion of children within schools remains a threat, despite globalized influences and conventions such as the UN’s Convention on the Rights of the Child. On the issue of exclusion, we agree with Booth’s (1996) position that exclusion is a process of denying access to participation. Such a denial might include the curriculum, friendship groups, and access to teacher time. Supporting Booth‘s assertion, Kearney (2011) notes that exclusion is not just about the absence or denying of the child’s physical presence in the school. As Slee and Allan (2005) also argue, exclusion can either be visible or hidden. The editors of this volume wish to add the dimensions of agency (personal) and intentionality (voluntary vs. involuntary) as components of exclusion. For example, an individual or child might choose (personal agency) not to participate in learning activities (voluntary) in school and so willingly exclude him/herself from participation. This means that a more nuanced discussion about the practices and processes of inclusion and exclusion must be had if we are to represent what happens in schools accurately in settings across the world.

Adding to the complexity of the debate about inclusive education is that while inclusion is often understood and embraced conceptually, not enough attention is paid to the pragmatics of implementation. The discourse on and about inclusion risks only being viewed as an approach to teaching and learning that is articulated but never evidenced beyond the epistemes, philosophies, and theories espoused in education. Crockett and Kauffman (1998) describe three ways that inclusion has been understood conceptually in the U.S. Inclusion as a political concept means that the education of all students is viewed as a moral imperative versus exclusion. As a legal concept, it means a balance between the interest of the state and that of ensuring the rights of the individual student was met, as set out in the now well- known IDEA—Individuals with Disabilities Education Act. As an educational concept, inclusive education (IE) goes beyond a simple consideration of the instructional supports needed to meet students’ learning needs to an examination of the relationships between the specific learning needs of a student and classroom elements that address those needs. Understanding inclusive education as a concept, therefore, means that approaches to educating students (those with disabilities in particular), programs, policies, and legislation, political action take center stage and act as catalysts to determine levels of participation and levers for change to achieve equity in education for all students.

Similarly in the United Kingdom as noted by Ainscow et al. (2006) inclusion is understood in many different ways. These researchers developed a six-point typology that explains how persons think about inclusion. These are outlined next,

1.

Inclusion as a concern with disabled students and others as having "special education needs.

2.

Inclusion as a response to disciplinary exclusion.

3.

Inclusion in relation to all groups seen as being vulnerable to exclusion.

4.

Inclusion as developing the school for all.

5.

Inclusion as ‘Education for All’.

6.

Inclusion as a principled approach to education and society. (Ainscow et al., 2006, p. 14).

While the six points/elements are not independent of each other, and this is especially true for points four, five and six, within the English-speaking Caribbean, inclusive education is viewed as a right that guarantees access to education (International Bureau of Education, 2007) and therefore aligns with point five above. Another central understanding for many islands is that inclusion demands education reform and the elimination of discrimination towards the most vulnerable students, for example, those with impairments, children from poor backgrounds, girls, boys and dropouts (International Bureau of Education, 2007). Perhaps the strongest evidence of commitment by many Caribbean governments to inclusive education is expressed in revisions to Education Acts to state that education provides universal access for all students as is the case in Barbados, Grenada, St. Vincent and the Grenadines, Dominica, St. Kitts Nevis, The Bahamas, Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago (International Bureau of Education, 2007). However, although there is a common understanding of how inclusive education is understood, there is great divergence with respect to how islands have approached its implementation. This signals that a single monolithic discussion about inclusion across islands in the British Caribbean is neither feasible nor accurate. The factors that give rise to such differences in the levels of implementation can be linked to two central ideas these are capacity and resources vis-à-vis economies, cultural, social, legal, linguistic, and financial diversity.

The Caribbean is divided into different geographic and linguistic zones namely, The English Speaking Caribbean which comprises of Barbados, The Eastern Caribbean, The Leeward Islands, The Winward islands with Trinidad, Tobago, and Guyana to the South. In addition, The French, Spanish and Dutch-speaking Caribbean complete the archipelago of islands. The Caribbean Development Bank’s (2016) report notes that poverty and inequality in the region is a growing concern in many islands. There is huge disparity with regard to poverty and inequality with Belize, Haiti, Grenada, Guyana, St. Lucia and St. Vincent and the Grenadines at the lower end of the continuum and the British Virgin Islands at the upper end. Evidence of this disparity is seen in the differences in the gross national income (GNI) which ranges from $6560 in Saint Vincent and the Grenadines to $15,550 in Trinidad and Tobago. Furthermore, many islands like Barbados, Antigua and Barbuda are caught in a middle-income trap, with disparities in access to social services like education, severe deprivations and vulnerabilities that disproportionately affect children (UNICEF, 2009).

With regards to access to education, while the subregion has progressed well in universal primary and secondary education, gaps remain in access (for children with disabilities, those at risk and the poor) to quality education. In early childhood development (ECD), 10–20% of children aged 3–5 years do not attend preschool. Differences are prominent between the richest and the poorest households in the region. While universal primary and secondary education has been largely attained, educational outcomes are low and not commensurate with the high investments in education by Caribbean governments, which average 5% of GDP (UNICEF, 2009). The average pass rates in such core subjects as mathematics and English are less than 50%. An analysis in Saint Kitts and Nevis highlighted the challenges facing many Caribbean countries, namely, few teachers that effectively differentiate pedagogies; inadequate support systems for students at risk academically and behaviorally, particularly boys; a limited understanding of positive behaviour interventions; and a limited ability to identify and support students with disabilities (UNICEF, 2017). The picture that this paints for inclusive education is the same for many international contexts like the US and Europe who are still struggling to implement policies and practices that support all children in school equally.

The above however should not be taken to mean that efforts are not underway in the Caribbean to spur the transformation of education systems towards inclusion. In fact, research in the Caribbean suggests that inclusive education continues to be a burgeoning field and scholars are actively investigating the nature of and factors that impact the implementation of inclusion in the region. The next section will examine what is known about IE in the Caribbean to date.

1.1 What Do We Know About Inclusive Education in the Caribbean?

Some of the work that has been done on inclusion in the Caribbean includes studies on teacher attitudes towards inclusion in the islands of Trinidad and Barbados (Blackman, Conrad, & Brown, 2012), Barbados, Cayman Islands, Grenada, St. Lucia and St. Vincent (Lynch, Wolman, & Harris-Looby, 2012), The Bahamas (Cambridge-Johnson, Hunter-Johnson, & Newton, 2014) and Haiti (Dupoux, Wolman, & Estrada, 2005). Generally speaking, studies suggest that teachers attitudes are ambivalent in the Caribbean. This was found to be the case for example in Barbados and Trinidad (Blackman et al., 2012) while in Haiti, teachers who held Masters Degrees recorded more positive attitudes towards inclusion than their counterparts with lower level qualifications (Dupoux et al., 2005).

Research has also examined teachers’ perspectives of inclusion qualitatively in Guyana (Adjodhia-Andrews & Frankel, 2010), Barbados (Blackman, 2017b) and Trinidad and Tobago (Glasgow-Charles, Ibrahim-Joseph, & Bristol, 2017). Findings from this work suggested a need for resources was a top priority for teachers along with collaboration and planning at the school level to make inclusion sustainable. Although the attitudes of children and youth remain understudied in the Caribbean one study by Blackman (2016) found that while young children were not averse to the idea of including peers with disabilities, teenagers remained more ambivalent in their attitudes towards inclusion at the secondary school level. Some research has also been conducted on leadership for inclusive education in the islands of Trinidad and Tobago (Brown & Conrad, 2007; Conrad & Brown, 2011; Conrad, Brown, & Crockett, 2006) and Barbados (Blackman, 2012).

On the issue of policy and inclusion Blackman (2017a), Blackman, Fong-Kong Mungal, and Richardson (2013), Carrington Blaides & Conrad (2017), Lavia (2008) and Pedro (2017) in the islands of Barbados and Trinidad report that progress towards inclusive policies have remained sluggish even though the island of Trinidad remains quite progressive in its pursuit of implementation of IE (Carrington Blaides & Conrad, 2017). In addition to the above the area of student assessment and inclusion has steadily gained attention in the island of Trinidad and Tobago (De Lisle, 2010, 2012, 2015; De Lisle, Laptiste- Francis, McMillan-Solomon, & Bowrin-Williams, 2017; De Lisle, Smith, & Jules, 2012) with key questions being asked about equity and fairness of testing and secondary school selection in that island.

Research has also been undertaken on the areas of pedagogy and curriculum in Barbados by Blackman (2009, 2010, 2011, 2012), Trinidad (Hewitt-Bradshaw, 2017), Jamaica (Keaveny, 2017) and Martinique (Arenton & Numa- Bocage, 2018). Here researchers challenge the notion of specialist pedagogical approaches for children with dyslexia (Blackman, 2009, 2010) and advocate for the use of culturally responsive pedagogy in teaching English (Hewitt-Bradshaw, 2017) and the use of traditional games (Arenton & Numa-Bocage, 2018) to teach mathematics in Caribbean classrooms.

More recently, the discussion on inclusion has been extended to examine topics on inclusion and student voice in schools and higher education (Blackman, Conrad, & Philip, 2018; Blackman, Conrad, Williams, & AboDeeb-Gentile, 2018). Additionally, cross-cultural work on the perspectives of school leaders on inclusion in St. Vincent, Barbados and two New England States in the U.S.A has also been conducted (Blackman, Conrad, Williams, & AboDeeb-Gentile, 2019). Other areas of interest to Caribbean academics include teacher education for inclusion (Conrad & Scales, 2018; Ibrahim-Joseph & Lavia, 2019).

While the work above has done well to examine the nature and factors that influence IE, we need more work that helps us to situate the discourse on inclusion internationally, philosophically and conceptually to weigh the practicality of achieving inclusion given the regions history and socio-cultural milieu.

1.2 Why a Text that Looks at Achieving Inclusion?

This text on Achieving Inclusive Education in the Caribbean and Beyond: From Philosophy to Praxis is meant to inform further discussions in the region about the philosophy, conceptual understandings, and practicality of implementing inclusion. The chapters in this book will seek to shed light on the historical, systemic, structural, organizational, and attitudinal barriers that continue to be antithetical to the philosophy and practice of inclusive education within the region. The scope of this book is broad and covers topics that capture the nexus between inclusion as philosophy, concept and its practice. We wish to draw the reader’s attention to one key point of convergence in this book. Many of the chapters in this volume are difficult to compartmentalize and discretely classify as either philosophical, conceptual, or praxis-oriented. What appears quite frequently are discussions that intersect and overlap one or two of the three categories that undergird our framework for understanding inclusive education in the book. The intersections then provide a lens to interrogate and in some instances explain how conceptually bound inclusion is within our discourse(s) about access to education, equity in education, exclusion of students from education, policies that guide education, and teacher preparation and practices in education. We have therefore organized the book into four sections to assist the new reader in navigating the discussion on the philosophy, concept, and practice of inclusive education.

The first section of the book is entitled Globalized Views of Inclusion in the Caribbean: Implications for Education Policy and School Organization. Authors examine how globalized views of inclusion informed by philosophical ideas from the North, has and continues to influence the equity in education agenda in the region. The discourse is situated in the colonial past of the Caribbean and highlights how problems inherent in and transferred from this period continue to make inclusion challenging to achieve. In particular, a case is made for a ‘forensic examination’ of the system of schooling, its organization, use of selective assessment systems and stakeholder perspective. Authors argue for a need to decolonize education, that is, a radical transformation of and movement away from previous colonial thinking and operating within education. To assist in that effort a data-driven approach to knowing and implementing decisions about inclusion is suggested as a viable way forward for governments of the region to achieve education for all. The real value of using data is that it invites the use of both quantitative and qualitative approaches to understanding key questions about inclusion like, what is inclusion? what should inclusion look like in the Caribbean? and what indicators of inclusion are suitable for the Caribbean context?

Chapter 2, by Nigel Brissett, examines postcolonial theory and its implications for education policy in the island of Jamaica. It recognizes and considers the history and evolution of inclusion and its implications for education policy in Jamaica. Of interest is the finding that the definition of inclusion changes based on national, international, political-economic, and sociocultural conditions that impact (and justify) the implementation of educational inclusion policies. He also analyses the relationship between the discourse on globalization and its implications for inclusive education, individual rights to economic opportunity, and social mobility.

Chapter 3, by Marcia Pilgrim and Garry Hornby, then examines the organization of schools in Barbados and how the practice of selective schooling leads to potential exclusion. They explore the conflict between the philosophy and practicality of inclusive education, ability grouping, and approaches to selective secondary education typically found in English-speaking Caribbean countries. Through critical analysis, the authors propose a model aimed at achieving equitable and inclusive education for all school-age students in Barbados. The extent to which children with special educational needs and disabilities are at risk for internal exclusion when schools are streamed by ability is discussed.

In Chap. 4, Chelseaia Charran, Audrey M. Sorrells, and North Cooc present a compelling argument for expanding the methodological frameworks used to understand inclusion by integrating more quantitative research. According to these authors, one limitation in current research on inclusion in the Caribbean is the lack of robust quantitative studies examining the accessibility to general education classrooms for students of varying abilities. They consider how quantitative research methods are being used to investigate current inclusive educational approaches—in particular, how to measure inclusion and access in the Caribbean. They argue that more quantitative data and analytical approaches will enable policymakers to develop more informed educational guidelines that encourage and promote inclusive practice.

The second section of the book entitled ‘Critical Debates on Education Exclusion and Overcoming Barriers to Participation’ then gives some consideration to how exclusion and marginalization still occur across selected Caribbean islands. It provides both quantitative and qualitative data about the nature and experience of exclusion in selected Caribbean islands, the UK and USA. How individuals, schools and families seek to counter barriers to participation through resilience, conflict management and new models of parental partnerships in education is also examined as a counternarrative to the discourse on exclusion.

Chapter 5 continues the discussion from Part I on the potential exclusion of children from school in the Caribbean. Verna Knight reports on data from the United Nation’s Children’s Education Fund (UNICEF) Out-of-School-Children Initiative (OOSCI) conducted in seven Eastern Caribbean states. Her chapter examines the phenomenon of present and potential exclusion to education for boys and girls within the Eastern Caribbean subregion. The study uses overage as a significant indicator to show that while present educational exclusion is small for children and adolescents up to ages 14, the threat of potential exclusion is a significant concern that begins as early as kindergarten and worsens at each subsequent educational level.

Jerome De Lisle’s Chap. 6, on the intersectionality between gender, socioeconomic status, and marginalization of students in Trinidad builds on the need for more quantitative research to understand the issues surrounding student achievement and inclusive education. He argues that little is known especially about the critical role of socioeconomic status (SES), although there is evidence of pockets of high poverty and an uneven distribution of wealth in the twin island republic of Trinidad and Tobago. His study attempts to address this gap in knowledge within the Caribbean by exploring the relationship between SES and achievement in Trinidad and Tobago.

Remi Joseph-Salisbury’s Chap. 7 then challenges the notion of Black mixed-race men’s underachievement in secondary school in England. Remi uses the narratives of these men to challenge the axiomatic assumption that low expectations lead to low attainment for racially minoritized students. He argues that while self-fulfilling prophecy theses have dominated popular and academic discourses on the schooling of racially minoritized groups, he shows that low expectations can often act as a source of inspiration for Black mixed-race men.

Chapter 8 by Therese Ferguson examines how school-based initiatives can be used to address the issue of school violence and promote student achievement in schools in Jamaica. Her work utilizes the theory of restorative justice to underpin a program for conflict resolution. The Change From Within program is a school-based initiative being implemented under an Education for Sustainable Development thrust in Jamaica. Therese details how the program seeks to address school violence and indiscipline and mitigate the extent to which in-school violence and indiscipline impair students’ accessibility to quality education.

Chapter 9, by Kayon Morgan then introduces a new model of family engagement which schools can use as part of an inclusive approach to achieve workforce readiness for postsecondary students. Kayon examines the existing literature and presents a new theoretical framework called the Model of Family Engagement in Postsecondary and Workforce Readiness (FEPWR), to examine the intersections between family engagement and postsecondary and workforce readiness. The new framework constructs an approach that is more inclusive in language, addresses educators at all levels, and bridges the gap between all levels of schooling into the workforce.

The third section of the book entitled ‘Decolonizing Pedagogy, Curriculum and Teacher Preparation for Inclusion’ then tackles the practical realities of transforming education systems in the Caribbean for inclusion. In particular, authors identify teacher practices as the main site of interrogation that needs to be tackled if inclusion is to successful. How teachers make decisions about how to engage students in the curriculum and its content continues to be at the forefront of this inquiry. In addition, an understanding of how curriculum and pedagogical decision making create barriers to participation for students remain relevant especially in the context of teacher preparation and professional development.

Chapter 10, by Erold Bailey explores how the instructional context shapes students’ learning in inclusive classrooms. Erold argues that classroom environments in Caribbean islands like Jamaica still reflect vestiges of their oppressive history, which continue to deprive many students of their agency and self-efficacy. He notes that the dangers of maintaining postcolonial approaches to instruction are that they do not provide classroom experiences that empower learners and can result instead in a disservice to students. He suggests that Caribbean educators practice critical pedagogy to empower all students and address the instructional culture of the education system as a matter of urgency.

Chapter 11, by Keitha-Gail Martin-Kerr, builds on the need for pedagogical and instructional reform by using Barthes’ philosophical concept of colonial consciousness and Freire’s concept of conscientization to philosophize the need for a more inclusive education based on queer pedagogy. She uses Barthes’ philosophy of colonial consciousness to illustrate how discrimination manifests in the heteronormative practices in the Jamaican education system. She then explains the need to enact Freire’s concept of conscientization in the classroom to develop a critical awareness of the social norms of the Jamaican society and its education system through reflection and action.

Roland Birbal and Iris Bradshaw-Hewitt explore the intersections of postcolonial theory and curriculum review using student voice in Trinidad and Tobago in Chap. 12. They examine the powerfulness of student voices in curriculum review and educational change and its capacity to lead to greater inclusiveness and an improved curriculum. They also identify the potential challenges to inclusion in postcolonial societies in the Anglophone Caribbean that are still encumbered by colonial educational structures, unequal power relations in school, and marginalization.

In Chap. 13, Lisa Ibrahim-Joseph and Jennifer Lavia then examine teacher professional development in the twin-island state of Trinidad and Tobago. These authors identify the conceptual, epistemological, historical, and practical challenges associated with discourses on inclusion and give particular consideration to the postcolonial, post-independence era of education in Trinidad and Tobago. They argue that colonizing practices persist and continue to influence policy making, implementation, and change concerning teacher development. These authors present an indigenous architecture for teacher development where inclusion is viewed through a decolonizing transformative practice that represents a pedagogy of hope.

The last section of the book entitled Leadership for Inclusive Education: Selected Studies from the Caribbean and USA then examines the contribution of principals and exemplars to the development and advocacy for inclusive education. How educational leadership is understood, the role of school principals in making inclusion a reality in schools, the challenges experienced and qualities of education leaders are considered in this section.

Chapter 14 by Stacey N.J. Blackman, Dennis A. Conrad, Kenneth Williams, and Theresa Abodeeb-Gentile proposes a social justice framework to interrogate principals’ perspectives of inclusive education in Barbados, St. Vincent and two New England schools in the U.S. In this chapter, principals describe and portray inclusive education as a policy that all schools should adopt to achieve education for all. Principals’ motivations for advocating inclusive pedagogy are directional and described as either being an active campaigner or a resigned advocate. The authors then discuss the barriers principals encountered toward achieving inclusion in their respective contexts.

In Chap. 15, Dennis A. Conrad and Launcelot I. Brown pay tribute to the highly esteemed teacher educator and Fulbright scholar, Dr. Ewart Taylor, also known as Werty. Dr. Taylor, a lecturer at the University of the West Indies–St. Augustine campus passed away on September 6, 2017. The co-editors used information from personal notes and two prior interviews, and they member-checked with members of the Taylor family in writing this testimony and celebration of his contributions. This commentary portrays Werty as an advocate for inclusive education, family-focused, a music and culture lover, and an educator with a passion for his teaching. Concerning his forte in educational administration and leadership, he emphasized the differences between management and leadership, underscoring the need for school leaders to be centered on and engaged with the needs of their community of learners.

Chapter 16 by Stacey N. J. Blackman, Dennis A. Conrad, and Launcelot I. Brown then consider the next steps for achieving inclusion through a synthesis of the work presented in this volume. Implications for teacher preparation, policy and practice are discussed.

1.3 Who Is the Target Audience for This Book?

The target audience for this book includes researchers, lecturers, practitioners, and policymakers and it can also be a companion reader for graduate and undergraduate students in higher education. This book can also be used as an introductory, cross-disciplinary, or main text in foundation education courses on inclusive, special education, or development courses.

References

Ainscow, M., Booth, T., & Dyson, A. (2006). Improving schools, developing inclusion. London, UK: Routledge.

Ainscow, M., Farrell, P., & Tweddle, D. (2000). Developing policies for inclusive education: A study of the role of local education authorities. International Journal of Inclusive Education, 4(3), 211–229.Crossref

Ajodhia-Andrews, A., & Frankel, E. (2010). Inclusive education in Guyana: A call for change. International Journal of Special Education, 25(1), 126–144.

Arneton, M., & Numa-Bocage, L. (2018). From academic performances and learning in mathematics to transcultural knowledge: An example in the cultural environment of Martinique. In D. A. Conrad & S. Blackman (Eds.), Responding to learner diversity and difficulties (pp. 125–142). Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing.

Blackman, S. (2009). Learning is hard work and sometimes difficult. What pupils with dyslexia say about the difficulties they experience with learning at secondary school in Barbados. Caribbean Curriculum, 16(1), 1–16.

Blackman, S. (2010). ‘Who I work with is important’: Dyslexic students’ narratives about the benefits of grouping for instruction in Caribbean classrooms. Support for Learning, 25(1), 4–10.Crossref

Blackman, S. (2011). Using pupil perspective research to inform teacher pedagogy: What Caribbean pupils with dyslexia say about teaching and learning. Journal of Research in Special Educational Needs, 11(3), 178–185.Crossref

Blackman, S. (2012). Principals’ roles in managing assessment, curriculum and instruction in mainstream and special education in Barbados. Journal of Education and Development in the Caribbean, 14(2), 72–96.

Blackman, S. (2016). Barbadian students’ attitudes towards including peers with disabilities in regular education. International Journal of Special Education, 31(1), 135–143.

Blackman, S. (2017a). From charity education towards inclusion: The development of special and inclusive education in Barbados. In S. Blackman & D. A. Conrad Caribbean (Eds.), Discourse in inclusive education: Historical and contemporary issues (pp. 33–52). Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing.

Blackman, S. (2017b). Barbadian teachers’ perspectives of school culture, support, and inclusion of students with disabilities. In S. Blackman & D. A. Conrad Caribbean (Eds.), Discourse in inclusive education: Historical and contemporary issues (pp. 277–296). Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing.

Blackman, S., Conrad, D., & Brown, L. (2012). The attitude of Barbadian and Trinidadian teachers to integration. International Journal of Special Education, 27(3), 158–168.

Blackman, S., Conrad, D., & Philip, L. (2018). Responding to barriers to inclusion: The voices of tertiary level students with disabilities in Barbados and Trinidad. In D. A. Conrad & S. Blackman (Eds.), Responding to learner diversity and difficulties (pp. 395–416). Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing.

Blackman, S., Conrad, D., Williams, K., & Abodeeb-Gentile, T. (2018). Barbadian and Vincentian students’ perspectives of difference, its tensions and including all students. In D. A. Conrad & S. Blackman (Eds.), Responding to learner diversity and difficulties (pp. 369–394). Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing.

Blackman, S., Fong Kong-Mungal, C., & Richardson, A. (2013). Special educators’ efficacy and exceptional students’ future trajectories: Informing Barbados’ education policy. In C. Sunal & K. Muta (Eds.), Research on the influences of education policy on teaching and learning (pp. 163–182). Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing.

Blackman, S. N. J., Conrad, D. A., Williams, K., & Abo-Deeb Gentile, T. (2019). A north-south dialogue on principals’ understanding of, role in and barriers faced achieving inclusive education. In S. N. J. Blackman, D. A. Conrad & L. I. Brown (Eds.), Achieving inclusive education in the Caribbean and beyond: From philosophy to praxis. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springer.

Booth, T. (1996). Stories of exclusion. In E. Blyth & J. Milner (Eds.), Exclusion from school. Inter-professional issues for policy and practice (pp. 21–36). London, UK: Routledge.

Booth, T., & Ainscow, M. (Eds.). (1998). From them to us: An international study of inclusion in education. London, UK: Routledge.

Brown, L., & Conrad, D. (2007). School leadership in Trinidad and Tobago: The challenge of context. Comparative Education Review, 51(2), 181–201. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1086/​512021Crossref

Cambridge-Johnson, J., Hunter-Johnson, Y., & Newton, N. G. (2014). Breaking the silence of mainstream teachers’ attitude towards inclusive education in the Bahamas: High school teachers’ perceptions. The Qualitative Report, 19(42), 1–20.

Caribbean Development Bank. (2016). The changing nature of poverty and inequality in the Caribbean: New issues and solutions. Bridgetown, Barbados: Caribbean Development Bank.

Carrington Blaides, E., & Conrad, D. A. (2017). Towards inclusive education in Trinidad and Tobago: Policy challenges and implications. In S. Blackman & D. A. Conrad Caribbean (Eds.), Discourse in inclusive education: Historical and contemporary issues (pp. 33–52). Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing.

Conrad, D. A., & Brown, L. I. (2011). Fostering inclusive education: Principals’ perspectives in Trinidad and Tobago. International Journal of Inclusive Education, 15(9), 1017–1029. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1080/​1360311090349072​1Crossref

Conrad, D. A., Brown, L. I., & Crockett, J. (2006). Spirited to leadership: Caribbean educational leaders share their stories. International Electronic Journal for Leadership in Learning, 10(17), n17.

Conrad, D. J., & Scales, S. D. (2018). When the humming hurts: The strength that lies beneath. In D. A. Conrad & S. Blackman (Eds.), Responding to learner diversity and difficulties (pp. 237–262). Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing.

Crockett, J. B., & Kauffman, J. M. (1998). Taking inclusion back to its roots. Educational Leadership, 56(2), 74–77.

De Lisle, J. (2010). Final report for the consultancy to determine the status of the continuous assessment programme (CAP) in the 60 full treatment schools under the SES project. Port of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago: Seamless Education Project Unit.

De Lisle, J. (2012). Secondary school entrance exam in the Caribbean: Legacy, policy, and evidence within an era of seamless education. Caribbean Curriculum, 19, 109–143.

De Lisle, J. (2015). Installing a system of performance standards for national assessments in the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago: Issues and challenges. Applied Measurement in Education, 28(4), 308–329.Crossref

De Lisle, J., Laptiste-Francis, N., McMillion-Solomon, S., & Bowrin-Williams, C. (2017). Student assessment systems in the Caribbean as an obstacle to inclusive education. In S. Blackman & D. A. Conrad Caribbean (Eds.), Discourse in inclusive education: Historical and contemporary issues (pp. 87–106). Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing.

De Lisle, J., Smith, P., & Jules, V. (2012). Evaluating the geography of gendered achievement using large-scale assessment data from the primary school system of the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago. Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy and Practice, 19(1), 45–64.

Dupoux, E., Wolman, C., & Estrada, E. (2005). Teachers’ attitudes toward integration of students with disabilities in Haiti and the United States. International Journal of Disability, Development and Education, 52(1), 43–58.Crossref

Glasgow-Charles, K., Ibrahim-Joseph, L., & Bristol, L. (2017). Voices from the trenches: Teachers’ perspectives of inclusion. In S. Blackman & D. A. Conrad Caribbean (Eds.), Discourse in inclusive education: Historical and contemporary issues (pp. 187–208). Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing.

Hewitt-Bradshaw, I. (2017). Inclusive education across the school curriculum: Providing greater access through language. In S. Blackman & D. A. Conrad Caribbean (Eds.), Discourse in inclusive education: Historical and contemporary issues (pp. 69–86). Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing.

Ibrahim-Joseph, L., & Lavia, J. (2019). Inclusion, critical professionalism and transformative practice. In S. N. J. Blackman, D. A. Conrad & L. I. Brown (Eds.), Achieving inclusive education in the Caribbean and beyond: From philosophy to praxis. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springer

International Bureau of Education (IBE). (2007). Report on The Caribbean Symposium on Inclusive Education, Kingston, Jamaica, 5–7 December 2007. Geneva, Switzerland: UNESCO IBE (unpublished).

James, F. (2010). Leading educational improvement in Trinidad and Tobago. School Leadership and Management, 30(4), 387–398.Crossref

Kearney, A. (2011). Exclusion from and within school: Issues and solutions. Boston, MA: Sense Publishers.Crossref

Keaveny, D. (2017). Listening to the voices of children with learning disabilities and or attention deficit hyperactivity disorder on their experiences of transitioning to high school. In S. Blackman & D. A. Conrad Caribbean (Eds.), Discourse in inclusive education: Historical and contemporary issues (pp. 225–244). Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing.

Lavia, J. (2008). Inclusive education in Trinidad and Tobago. In L. Barton & F. Armstrong (Eds.), Policy, experience and change: Cross-cultural reflections on inclusive education (Inclusive education: Cross cultural perspectives) (Vol. 4, pp. 107–122). Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springer.Crossref

Lynch, J. O., Wolman, C., & Harris-Looby, J. (2012). Special education in the Caribbean. Advances in research and praxis. In K. Mutua & C. S. Sunal (Eds.), Special education in Africa, Caribbean, and the Middle East (pp. 131–153). Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing.

Pedro, J. (2017). Special education in Trinidad and Tobago: Does educational vision and change lead to success. In S. Blackman & D. A. Conrad Caribbean (Eds.), Discourse in inclusive education: Historical and contemporary issues (pp. 21–32). Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing.

Slee, R., & Allan, J. (2005). Excluding the included. In Policy and power in inclusive education. Values into practice (pp. 13–24). Abingdon, UK: RoutledgeFalmer.

UNICEF. (2009). Situation analyses of children and their families in the Eastern Caribbean. Bridgetown, Barbados: UNICEF Eastern Caribbean Office.

UNICEF. (2017). Situation analyses of children in St. Kitts Nevis. Bridgetown, Barbados: UNICEF Eastern Caribbean Office.

Part IGlobalized Views of Inclusion in the Caribbean: Implications for Education Policy & School Organization

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019

Stacey N. J. Blackman, Dennis A.  Conrad and Launcelot I.  Brown (eds.)Achieving Inclusive Education in the Caribbean and Beyondhttps://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-15769-2_2

2. Evolution of Educational Inclusion Policy Discourse in Jamaica: From Colonialism to Globalization

Nigel O. M. Brissett¹  

(1)

Clark University, Worcester, MA, USA

Nigel O. M. Brissett

Email: [e-mail]

Keywords

Educational inclusion policyCaribbean Jamaica educationPeople with disability policy

2.1 Contemporary Definitions of Educational Inclusion

In Jamaica, 6.3% of the population (Lumpkin, 2013) has some form of disability. Historically, responsibility for the education of these members of the population fell outside of government purview and out of the regular school system. More recently, however, there has been a changing policy discourse that recognizes this population as important members of the society, coupled with increasing policy efforts to mainstream them in the traditional school system. This new emerging policy discourse seems to be more consistent with Jamaica’s educational motto, every child can learn and every child must learn, as well as more reflective of today’s international definitions of inclusive education. This emerging inclusive policy discourse and practice has been a long process and represents changing notions of inclusive education from the era of slavery and colonialism to the new globalization era.

This chapter explores the evolving meanings of and justifications for educational equity policy discourses in Jamaica through three different time periods—colonial/postcolonial, post-independence, and the current neoliberal globalization age. I argue that each era has its own (national and international) political-economic and sociocultural conditions that impact (and justify) the definition and implementation of educational inclusion policies. Focusing primarily on people with disabilities in the context of inclusive education, I examine the evolution of their invisibility in educational policy to their significance to any conceptualization and operationalization of inclusive education policy in the current era. Thus, the question that guides this chapter is: How has the definition and understanding of educational inclusion changed in Jamaica over time and what has accounted for these changes? I also explore some of the core practical implications of these policy changes historically. In order to develop a useful framework and context for a discussion of this question, however, an explication of the meaning(s) of inclusive education is critical.

An analysis of various definitions suggests that there are multiple layers and values that underpin concepts of inclusive education, including a philosophical stance, a