European Port Cities in Transition: Moving Towards More Sustainable Sea Transport Hubs

Seaports, as part of urban centers, play a major role in the cultural, social and economic life of the cities in which they are located, and through the links they provide to the outside world. Port-cities in Europe have faced significant change, first with the loss of heavy industry, emergence of Eastern European democracies, and the widening of the European Community (now European Union) during the second half of the twentieth century, and more recently through drivers to change including the global Sustainable Development Agenda and the European Union Circular Economy Agenda.
This book examines the role of modern seaports in Europe and consider how port-cities are responding to these major drivers for change. It discusses the broad issues facing European Sea Ports, including port life cycles, spatial planning, and societal integration. May 2019 saw the 200th anniversary of the first steam ship to cross the Atlantic between the US and England, and it is just over 60 years since the invention of the modern intermodal shipping container – both drivers of change in the maritime and ports industry. Increasing movements of people, e.g. through low cost cruises to port cities, can play a major role in changing the nature of such a city and impact on the lives of the people living there. This book brings together original research by both long-standing and younger scholars from multiple disciplines and builds upon the wider discourse about sea ports, port cities, and sustainability.

• Language: English
• Publisher: Springer
• Release date: Jan 22, 2020
• ISBN: 9783030364649

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© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020

A. Carpenter, R. Lozano (eds.)European Port Cities in TransitionStrategies for Sustainabilityhttps://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-36464-9_1

1. Introduction, Chapter Summary, and Conclusions from the Book

Angela Carpenter¹, ²   and Rodrigo Lozano¹, ³

(1)

Faculty of Engineering and Environment, University of Gävle, Gävle, Sweden

(2)

School of Earth and Environment, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK

(3)

Organisational Sustainability Ltd, Cardiff, UK

Angela Carpenter

Email: [e-mail]

Abstract

Currently, European ports, and the cities within which they are located, face significant changing economic circumstances, together with technological, social and cultural pressures for change, as they seek to become more sustainable. Drivers for change include the global United Nations Sustainable Development Agenda and the European Union Circular Economy Agenda. As major players in the cultural, social and economic life of cities, ports can provide economic well-being and support a strong identity for those cities and their local communities. City sustainability requires elements including conservation of resources and minimisation of waste, while supporting and sustaining the local population through the provision of services such as housing and public transport. Ports and cities have therefore come to understand that in order to grow and become more sustainable, they have to work collaboratively to achieve their individual and combined goals.

Keywords

Port-city relationshipEuropean UnionSustainable developmentCollaboration and cooperationPort-city identity

European ports have always been unique and important urban centers—links with the outside world, regional centers for their hinterlands, cultural, economic and social filters and magnifiers. They possess rich historical legacies, but under changing economic circumstances they often have to restructure their facilities and urban fabrics to meet new challenges.

This statement, from the dust cover of the original book on European Port Cities in Transition, edited by Hoyle and Pinder (1992), still holds true. In that book, issues such as the move away from traditional heavy industries, containerisation and changes in the way goods were handled (with a consequent loss of traditional port jobs), regeneration of old port areas for new uses, city-port revitalisation to provide leisure resources, and the obsolescence of ports in emerging Eastern European democracies, were just some of the issues examined.

Currently, ports, and the cities within which they are located, still face significant changing economic circumstances, together with technological, social and cultural pressures for change, as they seek to become more sustainable sea transport hubs (Carpenter et al. 2018). Drivers for these changes have included the global Sustainable Development Agenda in the last quarter of the 20th century (see United Nations 1992; WCED 1987) and, more recently, the European Union’s Circular Economy Agenda (European Commission 2014a, b).

Other factors, such as technological change through the introduction of digitalisation, Internet of Things, and Block-chain (see Chap. 5 by Acciaro in this book), have accelerated the speed of information transfer globally. Changes, including the need for deepwater access to ports as a result of containerisation and increasing vessel size, and the need for improved freight transport links, have seen ports moving away from their historical inner-city locations (Grossman 2008; Cullinane and Wilmsmeier 2011). This has often resulted in the dispersal of services and jobs away from cities and into the hinterland. These factors are important since seaports (herein ports), as part of—and connected closely to—urban centers, can provide a source of economic well-being and provide a strong identify for local communities (Pinder 2003).

Ports play a major role in the cultural, social and economic life of the cities in which they are located, and through the links they provide to the outside world (Fusco Girard 2013). They are important to economic development, because they facilitate trade and provide added value to the port and city; expanding market opportunities of both national and international firms based in them (Rodrigue and Schulman 2017). Ports are important players in the corporate world, due to their role in global production and distributions systems, by trading over six and a half billion metric tons annually. Half of the goods traded in the European Union (EU) is seaborne (Hall 2007). Ports in the EU Member States play a vital role in the movement of goods and passengers both within the EU and globally, with more than 90% of goods imported into the EU entering through such ports (Eurostat 2018).

Ports are under increasing pressure to become more environmentally friendly and ensure safe and successful commercial operations (Carpenter et al. 2018). They are affected by a wide range of environmental issues (releases to water, air and soil, waste production, noise, and dredging, for example) (Darbra et al. 2005; Carpenter and Macgill 2003), together with legislative, technological, financial, and cultural/social issues that can significantly impact their activities (Carpenter 2005). Due to these reasons, ports need to comply with strict regulatory requirements for environmental protection and are increasingly being held responsible for their sustainability performance to ensure community support. At the same time, ports need to respond to economic pressures in a constantly evolving industry to remain competitive (Wooldridge et al. 1999). Sustainability of seaport activities can only be achieved by enacting management protocols that integrate economic, environment, social (including legal and technical) issues (see Chap. 12 by Lozano, Carpenter and Sammalisto).

There has been an increasing body of literature focused on the impacts of port and shipping operations on the environment. Examples within European ports include: Port Authority of Genoa’s Port Energy Environmental Plan for the port and its quay electrification of ship-repair docks (Greenport 2012); Port of Antwerp’s cold ironing approach (i.e. making shore power available for barges, as well as the Port Authority’s tug and dredger fleet) (American Journal of Transportation 2009); and Port of Hamburg’s moves towards autonomous vehicles (IAPH Port of Hamburg 2019). Sustainability activities of ports vary according to aspects such as their size, ownership, and the range of activities that take place in them. Ports are strongly influenced by factors specific to the country they are located in, as illustrated in various chapters in this book.

Although the European Union has developed specific legislation since 2000 relating to the handling of waste at port estates (for example Directive 2008/98/EC on waste (European Commission 2008); and Directive 2000/59/EC on port waste reception facilities (European Commission 2000—updated in 2015), and a European regulation on the provision of port services and rules on financial transparency (European Parliament and Council 2017), many initiatives at ports go beyond legal requirements, such as the cases of: Biopark Terneuzen of the Port of Zeeland (Port of Zeeland 2015); the Port of Antwerp’s Sustainability Strategy (Port of Antwerp, undated); and vision strategies of the Port of Amsterdam (2014) and Port of Rotterdam (2011). One of the main drivers of these developments has been Port authorities (PA).

In spite of the development, there have been many barriers to the implementation of sustainability, such as high upfront investments and risks; economic pressures for ports; and adverse policy incentives for port companies (Lozano et al. 2019). Whilst at the same time, ports also need to consider the challenges set out by the European Union, for example through the European Commission’s communications on a European Ports Policy (European Commission 2007) and on ports as an engine for growth (European Commission 2013).

For cities, one of the main sustainability goals has been defined as the "reduction of the city’s use of natural resources and production of wastes while simultaneously improving its livability, so that it can better fit within the capacities of the local, regional and global ecosystems" (Newman 1999). As in the case of ports, there has been a considerable amount of research undertaken since the adoption of the Brundtland Commission’s ‘Our Common Future’ Report (WCED 1987).

Sustainability research for urban areas has examined the broad inter-relatedness of social, climatic, geographic, cultural and institutional contexts (Cohen 2017). It has considered concepts such as (but not limited to) Industrial Ecology, Industrial Symbiosis, Circular Economy, Cradle-to-Cradle, Living Machines, Net Zero Building, Sustainable Cities, Smart Cities, Knowledge Cities, Resilient Cities, Eco Cities and Eco-Towns, and Low Carbon Cities (De Jong et al. 2015).

Towns and cities have generally developed alongside, or around, ports since ancient times (Hoyle 1989). This is illustrated in Fig. 1.1, which originally only included Stages I to V. Those stages show how the relationship between the city and its port have adapted over time in the face of factors such as industrialisation, technological change, and urban regeneration. Stage VI was added in a subsequent iteration of this figure, to consider factors such as globalisation and inter-modal transport links, for example.

../images/474638_1_En_1_Chapter/474638_1_En_1_Fig1_HTML.png

Fig. 1.1

Different Stages in the traditional port-city interface. Source Merckx et al. (2003). Adapted from Hoyle (1989: 47)

The relationship between a city (or town) and its associated port was also discussed by Ducruet (2005), who examined a range of typologies based on size of the city and the volume of traffic moving through its associated port (see Fig. 1.2). Ducruet (2005) identified that the nature of the relationship between ports and port cities is complex and based on three elements: short term changes such as the development of containerisation, long term formation of cities and urbanisation, and intermediate term of clusters ports.

../images/474638_1_En_1_Chapter/474638_1_En_1_Fig2_HTML.png

Fig. 1.2

Typologies of City-Port relationships. Source Ducruet (2005; Fig. 1). Note Figure is an English translation of the French original

More recently, Shan et al. (2014) argued that a port city operates as both a port and a city, each being dependent on the other. They identified that the development of a seaport can help boost the economy of its host city through cargo flows, passenger flows, financial flows, and a range of value-added services, and can also provide the stimulus for the development of infrastructure such as road and rail connections, which also boost the city’s economy.

Figures 1.1 and 1.2 show that the relationship between ports and cities has experienced many changes over time. This may have been expansion of one or both entities and, in many cases, a separation as a result of industrial change and a retreat away from the waterfront into hinterland areas and/or a wider port region.

This book compiles original research by long-standing and younger scholars from multiple disciplines and builds upon the wider discourse about seaports and sustainability. The book examines the role of modern ports in Europe and considers how port-cities are responding to these major drivers for change. Its release comes just over 60 years since the invention of the shipping container, a major factor in changing the way goods and cargoes are handled in ports, and a driver towards ever increasing vessel sizes. The latter has played a significant role in changing the way ports operate, and even where they are located, since many traditional ports are unable to accommodate these larger ships.

Chapter 2 by Fenton on port-city redevelopment and Sustainable Development (SD) presents out an overview of literature on SD in seaports, ranging from socio-economic and environmental impacts of ports on both their urban localities and at a global level, to the mechanisms, instruments, and governance systems used to alleviate negative impacts of ports. The chapter examines different approaches in problem solving that can contribute globally through the reduction of greenhouse gases from ocean-going shipping and locally from measures to improve negative impacts of onward transportation from the port, through the city, to inland areas. Measures, such as a move way from transportation using heavy goods vehicles travelling through a city to short-sea-shipping, inland waterways, and railway transport, present an opportunity to reduce air pollution in the port and its surrounding urban area. Using the example of the City of Stockholm, the chapter examines the challenges and opportunities presented in port-city redevelopment in the capital of Sweden. These challenges include planning for the sustainable redevelopment of former port areas, providing and maintaining physical infrastructure, managing transport and related impacts, and managing the needs of the various vessels that continue to use the port. Topics such as governance of the current and future operations of the port area and operations, moves towards a fossil-fuel free port city and a climate-smart port-city, and sustainable urban transportation are some of the topics covered in this chapter.

Chapter 3 by Carpenter and Lozano presents an overview of literature relating to ports and sustainability and cities and sustainability to illustrate how sustainability activities have been developed to generate positive impacts from, and reduce negative impacts of, ports on their host cities. The chapter highlights that sustainable ports should contribute to the well-being of the urban areas surrounding them, and how, through collaboration between the port and city, they can achieve a dynamic equilibrium between the economic, environmental and social aspects of each entity. In this chapter, a framework of what is a sustainable, and holistic, port-city is proposed, which illustrates how each entity can move individually, or in collaboration, towards such a goal. A collaborative approach can offer the most direct and fastest path towards this end, but the framework recognizes that this is not necessarily the most likely path. For example, ports will generally have a greater focus on economic viability—to remain operational and make a profit—rather than a focus on being environmentally or socially oriented. Cities are likely to be more socially and environmentally oriented, to meet the needs of the people who live within them, with economic viability not being a significant factor. However, while collaboration is important in order for both entities to become more sustainable in the short-, medium- and long-term, a number of questions remain such as what are the key elements that need to be considered and integrated into such a collaborative approach.

Chapter 4 by Karimpour et al. examine how the relationship between the port and the city has changed over time. This change may be in response to pressure to become more sustainable, for ports to respond to the physical impacts of increasing vessel size, the change in use of historic port areas, or ports either becoming disassociated from the city, or even no longer operating. The chapter discusses the life-cycle concept of ports to illustrate how they can become obsolete, but also show how they can avoid obsolescence and redevelop in co-operation with the city (see for example the work of Carpenter et al. 2018). The chapter examines a Circular Economy approach, where restoration or regeneration within a system replaces an end-of-life approach and where there is a finite end. This is compatible with the life cycle model of ports, where end of life would equate to obsolescence of the port, and restoration and regeneration equates to port redevelopment. Such redevelopment may be through introduction of new services or activities within the port, that can benefit both the port and the city. This might also include the reuse of waste materials generated within the port that would otherwise go to landfill and place a burden on the municipality. A number of specific circular economy approaches in European ports are examined in this chapter, to illustrate how the approaches have been incorporated into ports’ circular economy strategies. The chapter specifically highlights the role of the port and Port Authority in using circular economy approaches to become more sustainable, and how such cases can contribute to multi-level policy development going forward.

Chapter 5 by Acciaro et al. highlight the importance that digital technologies can have in the development of European port logistics. Digital technologies have contributed to the development of new business models in port-cities, and to improved cargo-handling and data management systems. Such technologies can contribute to the speeding up of the trans-shipment of goods from ships to the hinterland, reduce inefficiencies in port areas, and help safeguard the well-being of local communities and the environment. The chapter discusses what constitutes a smart port, including various information and communication technologies that are used widely by ports, for example port communication systems, vessel traffic services, automated gate and yard systems, and intelligent transport systems. The authors highlight that while such information an communication technologies can increase the efficiency of port operations, there remains a need to integrate these technologies into existing legacy systems. Other topics covered in this chapter include: how digitalisation can strengthen the relationship between ports and port-cities, for example by catalysing local development through the creation of new jobs; the potential of ports to contribute to the digital revolution (Logistics 4.0, Port 4.0); aspects of the Internet of Things (IoT), such as increasing levels of automation and monitoring real-time performance within the life-cycle; and Block-chain, where IoT and artificial intelligence can be used to speed up all the financial transactions involved in the trans-shipment of goods or to enhance safety and regulation compliance. While little has been documented on how digitalisation can contribute to port-city sustainability, the chapter concludes that a key aspect for adoption of digital technologies is strategic planning to improve port competitiveness, avoid social tensions, and safeguard the well-being of local inhabitants and the environment.

Chapter 6 by Van den Bergh and Daamen examines how the role of port authorities (PAs) has developed over the last two decades in order to manage port areas, handle the day to day running of a port, deal with changing logistics, and meet the needs of the port’s customers to remain competitive. At the same time, PAs have to deal with a range of economic, social, and environmental challenges that can lead to (spatial) policy conflicts between the port and the city (port/city), which are often viewed as separate entities, particularly where the port has physically moved away from the city. The chapter aims to better understand conflicts that arise between the port/city, and at the port-city interface (the economic interface between the port and city), and to and (re)direct the policy of ports/cities, and port-cities. Within a broader discussion of spatial planning and human geography, the chapter uses a visualisation method focusing on relational port-city interfaces with the steel manufacturing sector in the port-cities of Ghent and Amsterdam. These empirical cases describe the general properties and patterns that relate to the port-city interface, highlighting that significant networks and strong relationships can exist between the maritime and urban economy in some sectors. However, the authors note that in other sectors no significant relationships exist, and the port-city interface may be weak or non-existent. The chapter highlights the need to better understand each port/city, and the port-city interface, in order to formulate policy recommendations that can have a positive impact on the port-city and overcome conflicts (where and if they exist).

Chapter 7 by Schubert presents the specific case of the relationship between the port and city of Hamburg. The chapter examines three historic phases of the port and city: from the port and city as a functioning spatial unit until the beginning of the 19th century; through stages of industrialisation (the introduction of steam ships, increasing ship sizes, the need for larger docks, and more modern transport infrastructure, for example) resulting in growing separation between the two entities; and through to the current millennium when the port and city started to re-integrate to some extent. The historic role of the municipal government is examined in supporting the transformation of Hamburg from an inter-dependent city-harbour to an open-tidal seaport, together with changes such as Hamburg joining the German Reich in 1889, resulting in reduction in size of its Free Port area (an area where goods could be stored and processed duty free; fully abolished in 2013). The separation of the port and city continued in response to factors including industrial developments, the destruction of much of Hamburg and its port during World War II, reconstruction and expansion of the port away from its original location, and the more recent construction of a new container terminal on the River Elbe. The chapter discusses that, since the start of the new millennium, Hamburg has continued to grow and has gained some autonomy from the central government. Hamburg port, as one of the top three in Europe for trade, is controlled by the local government through the Hamburg Port Authority (established in 2005), and occupies around 10% of the area of Hamburg. While in recent years, some older port areas have been redeveloped, implementation of new mixed uses for some areas have also been implemented (HafenCity, temporary musical theatres on the south bank of the Elbe, for example). Hamburg has, therefore, seen a mixing of use, and efforts to re-integrate the city and port in a sustainable way.

Chapter 8 by Pages Sanchez and Daamen examines how urban and port policies of European waterfront redevelopment projects have been influenced by SD over the last 20 years. Port-city waterfront zones are seen as focal points of governance where port and urban actors co-operate, dispute, and pursue their interests and where public pressure forces key actors to address a range of economic, social, cultural, and environmental pressures. These waterfront zones are viewed as strategic areas, where the positive impact of ports can be emphasized. An institutionalist approach is presented as a theoretical lens through which the changing port city relationship and waterfront redevelopment practices can be examined. The role of the PA as a key actor is considered, together with the pressures imposed on PAs by formal governance structures and informal social expectations. The chapter is based on an actor-institutional comparison of projects in six port-cities (Oslo, Helsinki, Rotterdam, Hamburg, Marseille, and Genoa), assessing formal governance structures and informal social expectations at the port-urban interface. The six cases share a number of common problems and tensions between the economic, social and environmental policy objectives, and the PA in each case played a major role in dealing with them. A comparison of planning documents and legal frameworks for the role of the PA in relation to other key actors was undertaken in each case. By examining how key actors negotiate and attempt to resolve inherent tensions in planning sustainable waterfront redevelopment schemes, this chapter highlights the potential benefits that can be gained by hybrid approaches to such planning. It illustrates that, where the port is viewed as part of the urban environment, and the PA is viewed as an urban actor, innovation of the port city waterfront is possible.

Chapter 9 by Fobbe et al. proposes a new holistic framework for assessing sustainability performance in seaports. The SD efforts of PAs have been increasingly examined by academics in recent years, and while an increasing number of ports have assessed and reported their efforts, the focus has mainly been on environmental issues for the port as an individual organisation. In order to develop a holistic assessment framework, the authors examined several sustainability assessment and reporting (SAR) tools, from which they concluded that the Global Reporting Initiative (GRI) was one of the best tools available. The review identifies more than 400 port sustainability related indicators which were then compared with GRI guidelines. This chapter presents modified and new assessment categories for ports covering environmental, economic, and social dimensions of sustainability. It also identifies examples of interlinking issues for port sustainability assessment and port system indicators. The indicators were used to develop the Holistic Assessment of Sustainability in Seaports (HASPS) framework, covering the four dimensions of sustainability (economic, environmental, social, and time), interlinking issues, and the port systems dimension. HASPS is aimed at enabling ports and PAs to interconnectivity of all port activities, and plan sustainability changes holistically and from a systems perspective. HASPS should be suitable for all kinds of seaports, irrespective of size and business activities, and allows a seaport to assess its sustainability performance at any time, allowing them to analyse their own performance and potentially compare it to that of over ports.

Chapter 10 by Mayanti et al. examines the evolution of Port Community System (PCS) network analysis as a tool to enhance communication and simplify administration for seamless data exchange and cooperation across the port value chain. Seaports play a crucial role in the supply chain, connecting diverse stakeholders, and integrated systems are necessary for transparent information exchange between all stakeholders (also discussed in Chap. 5 by Acciaro et al.). The absence, or limited use, of PCS, or relaying information through conventional systems, can result in mistakes from multiple manual entries, missing documents, document duplication, or a lack of real time information, for example. As a result, there is a need for a system that can coordinate across the maritime network, overcome uncertainty, and reduce the administrative burden. PCS, as an open and neutral electronic platform, is such a system, and improves communication for as many as ten parties as port community members. The chapter reviews the literature to identify mechanisms to allow PCS to be developed and implemented within a port community. The chapter also examines two studies, one on technical implementation of PCS, and one on focal organisations necessary for successful PCS implementation, including a study on implementation of PCS in the Mediterranean. The authors conceptualise the evolution of PCS network development for ports in three stages (pre-PCS network, PCS network emergence, and PCS network expansion), and highlight that this is a dynamic process, requiring the acceptance of various actors to use the technology, and that it is a tool that could help accelerate a port’s sustainability transition.

Chapter 11 by Andrade and Costa focuses on the impact of global tourism on waterfront regeneration, including the displacement of local inhabitants, gentrification of services and public facilities, and changes to a city’s identity in response to the demands of tourists. The chapter examines the evolution of waterfront regeneration since the late 1960s, where reconstruction of the city has occurred in areas abandoned by port facilities, and where more recently port activities are reintegrated into the day to day life of the city. They also consider how tourism can provide an alternative port activity, compatible with the city; in particular in the case of cruises. The chapter highlights that waterfront regeneration has often come as a result of port-cities investing in revitalisation of their historic centres and improvement in their cultural offerings (e.g. museums and monuments). This makes the city more attractive to tourists, particularly in an era of low cost flights and low cost cruises. However, mass tourism has resulted in conflicts with local inhabitants and created a loss of local identity with cities becoming theme parks, where tourists visit for the day but do not sleep in the city. A number of opportunities and threats from tourism are presented, at a time when cruise ships are increasing in size and passenger capacity, the cost of crises are falling, and cities present a range of easily accessible historical and cultural locations (particularly in the Mediterranean). While seeking to maximise the net benefits of tourism in port-cities, there is a need to manage possible conflicts between tourists and local needs (housing, transportation, garbage, for example). Empirical research on the impacts of touristification of port cities is used to highlight the need for planning and management processes that balance the needs of tourists and locals, through collaboration between actors, effective monitoring tools, and strong administrative coordination.

Chapter 12 by Lozano et al. analyses the organisational change efforts of the Port of Gävle, Sweden, to become more sustainable. From the literature, five approaches are identified to help ports become more sustainable—legislative, technological, financial, cultural/social, and voluntary initiatives. Most of these efforts focus on technological and policy approaches, with little consideration of organisational change management, a main focus of this chapter. Based on 23 face-to-face interviews of port stakeholders, this chapter presents insights into what those stakeholders perceive sustainability to be, how sustainability is communicated, and what are the drivers and barriers (external and internal) towards the port becoming more sustainable. The chapter examines a range of literature on organisational change management for sustainability, including corporate sustainability drivers and barriers to change. Arising from that literature, those drivers and barriers were examined empirically through interviews with internal and external stakeholders, including representatives of the PA, local and regional government, and a range of port users. From the interview results, drivers and barriers were ranked on their frequency of mention to illustrate and explain the inter-relatedness of the port organisational system. The chapter presents what stakeholders perceived their influence on the port to be, what they though sustainability is, whether sustainability was communicated within and outside the port, and what they saw as the main barriers and drivers. The chapter highlights that stakeholders play an important part in addressing sustainability and managing organisational change, particularly considering drivers and barriers to change. Ports can better address sustainability if they consider it holistically, looking at the four dimensions of sustainability (economic, environmental, social, and time) and considering the six approaches identified.

Chapter 13 by Fernandez-Izquierdo et al. present a framework for a Port Authority Sustainability Governance Model (PASGM) that integrates sustainability and corporate governance into all the structures, policies, and processes of a port, to ensure that the port is fully committed to SD. The PASGM framework has been developed from a review of literature and best practice related to international corporate governance. Port governance is examined, including five difference port governance typologies. The relationship between corporate governance and sustainability is then discussed, together with the limited literature on sustainable port governance. The PASGM enables ports to become more sustainable, through the internal governance processes of the PA. The framework provides five axes which address critical issues in corporate governance and sustainability: governance foundations; stakeholder engagement, governance structure; Board operations to promote a more sustainable port; and sustainability information and communication. The chapter contributes to the discourse on corporate governance and ports in two ways. Theoretically, PASGM integrates critical issues of corporate governance and sustainability in the proposed framework for the PA. Practically, it provides some guidelines on key governance issues for integrating sustainability within the management system of the port. The authors in particular note that there is no genuine SD without a governance model committed to sustainability.

Chapter 14 by Berli et al. analyses the relationship between ports and cities from the perspective of intermodal transport networks that have been developed since the 1970s. Port-cities provide direct connectivity between maritime transport and land-based transport (road, rail). A macro (European-wide) approach is taken to investigate the influence of maritime transport on global trade for both port and non-port cities. This chapter uses for an extended view of Europe, from Iceland to Turkey and from the Canary Islands to the Russian plains. A temporal approach is also taken, which allows for the observation of spatial evolutions in Europe’s maritime centre of gravity and the identification of trends or trajectories in the maritime specialisation of cities. Within this chapter, a model of a European sea-land network of cities is constructed, using shipping data, to model vessel traffic flows (data for the months of March, June, September and December in the years 1978, 1983, 1988, 1993, 1998, 2003, and 2008). Other factors included in the model were road networks around ports showing connections between ports and cities, and urban population data. A network analysis of European cities then was undertaken. This chapter combines the planar and non-planar and studies the resulting entity as a single object, echoing early studies of the foreland-hinterland continuum in geography. It also contributes to urban studies by the fact that the European demographic hierarchy remains, overtime, a strong determinant of intermodal centrality.

Chapter 15 by Hein and van de Laar examines the separation of ports from cities since the 19th century, in cases where there was room for port activities and infrastructure to move to areas outside the city where there were no restrictions on them created by urban needs. The chapter discusses the case of Rotterdam where separation took place with the port activities moving out along the south of the River Maas, then expanding in response to the needs of the oil industry (pre- and post-World War II). The oil and petroleum industry played a dominant role in planning and allocation of land for the port area throughout much of the 20th century. Changes as a result of the introduction of containerisation in the 1960s ultimately contributed to the Port of Rotterdam expanding some 40 km from the city centre at the second Maasvlakte container area. This chapter highlights that, as such expansions occurred, they required close collaboration between business leaders and the municipality (for example through the regional planning activities of the 1920s) to enable administrative borders to expand as infrastructure expanded away from the city. The chapter illustrates the connectivity of Europe’s port industry by emphasizing the strong relations Rotterdam has with the German hinterland and industrial areas. Expansion along the Maas changed rural spaces to dock areas and specialized industrial spaces. Expansion also led to new governance and planning structures being established to safeguard the city’s industrial ambitions. However, changed post 1945 resulted in Rotterdam becoming a "city without a port and in the 1970’s, they indicate that Rotterdam became a place of distress, with noise, pollution and environmental issues having a detrimental impact on port and city relations. However, new developments and Rotterdam becoming Europe’s most sophisticated energy hub, have had a significant impact on port-city-regional relations and planning, including in respect of environmental issues. This highlights the urgency for research into port-city-regions and their spaces, values and people".

Chapter 16 by Acciaro, Renken and Dirzka examines the case of Hamburg as an integrated port city, with an emphasis on its smart-port and smart-city strategies, illustrating the complexity of managing such cities. This chapter differs from Chap. 7 by Schubert, also on Hamburg, which focuses more on the historic phases of conclusion, fragmentation and re-integration that the port and city went through from the early 19th century onwards. The chapter briefly discusses the evolution of port-city relations and how this changed in response to maritime technological innovations (from fossil fuels to automation and ICT), and how those changes are reflected in the literature on port-city interactions and port-city typologies. The chapter defines the relationship between the port and the city for port-cities, taking into account definitions from a broad range of perspectives; geographic, economic/socio-economic, environmental, competitiveness, smart approaches, and sustainability transition. For integrated port-cities, the authors identify that there is a close relationship between the port and city—in the case of Hamburg this closeness is the result of the city being indirectly involved in the management of the port through the Hamburg Port Authority (HPA). The increasing use of Hamburg port by cruise ships, the need to integrate urban structures with logistic operations, issues of traffic congestion, and the introduction of a communications system to manage the flow of truck movements, are some of the topics covered in this chapter. This chapter illustrates that, through close cooperation between Hamburg PMC and the Free and Hanseatic City of Hamburg, there is evidence of reintegration of the port into urban life, in part through waterfront development initiatives. However, such a relationship needs to go beyond urban development, taking into account socio-economic changes, issues of competition between ports in proximity, and economic factors such as changes in export trade growth. It is also necessary to consider changes in European transport networks, global production patterns, and European cooperation in areas including the environment and other policy areas, and regional logistics.

Chapter 17 by Nebot and Jimenez focuses on societal integration of ports and cities through a series of case studies on Spanish Ports. The chapter highlights that ports are often segregated places with little or no access by local communities, and limit citizens access to the sea. While, in some places, access has been opened up to a small number of people, for example through the creation of marinas, there is a need to physically improve access, and develop cultural, social and economic activities to meet wider local demands. Social integration of ports is identified as "the relationship of the port with local communities: residents of nearby neighbourhoods, workers, other users, and the general public". The chapter discusses a range of research related to sustainability and SD of ports, highlighting that the majority of research has focused on environmental and economic aspects, with far less one on social aspects. Existing research on social integration strategies is examined, and a series of examples of good practice in Spanish Mediterranean ports (Ports of Malaga, Cartagena, Valencia, Barcelona, Ginesta, and El Candado port in Malaga) are analysed. These ports include commercial harbours, which fall under the responsibility of the State, and marinas and fishing harbours which are managed by Spanish autonomous regions. The chapter identifies specific cases which fall under a number of broad headings: accessibility; sustainable mobility and modal integration; local demands and diversity of activities; blue employment; the use of ICTs in ports; education and maritime culture; and port heritage and identity. For each topic, one or more examples of good practice are set out. A brief outline is provided on how port SD research, together with research into the economic, environmental and social welfare of local communities, can be advanced in the future. This requires coordination among the large number of participating agents to best manage different initiatives and projects, and the need to implement participatory and cross-cutting governance processes when undertaking social integration projects in ports.

Chapter 18 by Kotowska, Mańkowska, and Pluciński examines the socio-economic costs and benefits of seaport infrastructure development for an environment, using the case of the port and city of Świnoujście, Poland to answer the question What impact does the implementation of large infrastructural projects in seaports have on the local community and seaport economy? In order to answer this question, a Seaport’s Social Cost-Benefit Analysis (Seaports’ SCBA) method was developed and applied. The Seaports’ SCBA method is described, with three stages: forecasting transshipment volumes for the planned terminal (PT); identifying socio economic benefits and costs of the PT at a global, national, and local level; and quantifying those socio-economic benefits and costs in both monetary and non-monetary terms. The Seaports’ SCBA method was implemented for a proposed deepwater terminal, taking into account its’ potential impacts on the port of Gdańsk, the only other deepwater terminal in Poland, and cargo flows from/to the port of Hamburg. The method sets out 13 categories of socio-economic benefits and costs of the PT, with characteristics described by range, type, kind and beneficiary. Environmental benefits were also identified associated with decreased transport costs, and increased economic benefits from higher customs duties. Benefits to the PA and other port users are estimated in the model, including who would be the beneficiaries of benefits and who would bear the costs. Possible social costs relating to increased vessel traffic and road transport were included as external costs. Benefits to the municipality would include creation of new jobs in the port and for state administration employees, and increased spending in the local economy. Identifying socio-economic benefits and costs using the Seaports’ SCBA model, and using that information as a basis for dialogue between the port and city, can help to gain approval from the local community for any port spatial development.

This book has compiled the work of a range of authors in fields as diverse as spatial planning, port-life cycle assessment, historical studies, and socio-economic research. A number of new frameworks, models, tools, and practical examples are discussed, which can be applied to cases across the European ports sector, and the global ports sector, moving forward.

This book demonstrates that, although ports and cities had been drifting apart, in order to grow and become more sustainable, they have to work collaboratively in order to achieve their individual and combined goals.

References

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