The History and Evolution of Tourism

By Prokopis A Christou

This book provides an overview of the history and evolution of tourism to the present, and speculates on possible and probable change into the future. It discusses significant travel, tourism and hospitality events while referring to tourism-related notions and theories that have been developed since the beginnings of tourism. Its scope moves beyond a comprehensive historical account of facts and events. Instead, it bridges these with contemporary issues, challenges and concerns, hence enabling readers to connect tourism past with the present and future. This textbook aspires to enhance readers' comprehension of the perplexed system of tourism, promoting decision-making and even the development of new theories.

Despite its academic orientation, the book is written in an approachable style enabling a clear and solid understanding of how tourism has evolved through the centuries. It uses several practitioner-linked, real-life examples and case studies derived from organizations and enterprises across all aspects of the tourism, travel and events industries.

This book will be of great interest to academics, practitioners and students from a wide variety of disciplines, including tourism, hospitality, events, sociology, psychology, philosophy, history and human geography.

• Language: English
• Publisher: CAB International
• Release date: Feb 11, 2022
• ISBN: 9781800621305

Prokopis A Christou

Prokopis A. Christou is a tourism academic at the Cyprus University of Technology. He has a PhD in tourism and has published research and conceptual papers in the most prestigious and leading tourism and hospitality journals (such as, 'Annals of Tourism Research', 'Tourism Management', 'Current Issues in Tourism', 'International Journal of Hospitality Management', and 'International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management').

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1

Introduction

© Prokopis A. Christou 2022. The History and Evolution of Tourism (P.A. Christou)

DOI: 10.1079/9781800621282.0001

1.1 Summary

The aim of this chapter is to introduce readers to the concept of ‘evolution’, the origins of evolutionary thought and the association of the notion with tourism. The chapter progresses by establishing the main aim of the book while highlighting its scope, importance and structure.

1.2 Evolution and Tourism

Evolutionary thought, that is the recognition that species evolve and change over time, has its roots in ancient times. Genesis, an ancient book written by Moses, describes how the world was created by God and how the human species evolved both in spiritual and physical terms, such as how they spread to the earth (St Athanasius Academy of Orthodox Theology, 2008). Classic Greek philosophers referred to the evolution of the world, people and things within it. Although it is not certain whether Heraclitus of Ephesus (c.535–475 BC) ever used the well-known phrase that ‘everything flows’ (in ancient Greek: ‘ta panta rhei’ – τὰ πάντα ῥεῖ), he certainly sparked a theoretical discussion of how everything changes and alternates (Kalfas and Zografidis, 2021). Likewise, Chinese thinkers such as Zhuang Zhou (c.369–286 BC) expressed ideas on changing biological species, while Taoist philosophers argued that as a response to differing environments, species have developed differing attributes (Ronan, 1995). Evolution has been closely associated to the discipline of biology, and from this perspective the online Oxford Learner’s Dictionaries (2021) defines it as ‘the slow steady development of plants and animals, etc. during the history of the earth, as they adapt to changes in their environment’. Even so, it was probably after the writings of Darwin that the term gained so much popularity. Charles Robert Darwin, born in 1809, was an English naturalist best known for his contributions to evolutionary theory. In 1859 he referred to the origins of species and his ‘theory of evolution’ that transformed the view of history of life on the planet, and how we understand ourselves and our place in the world. Few other books have created such a storm of controversy, that species derive from other species through a gradual evolutionary process, and that the average of each species is heightened by the survival of the fittest (Farrington, 1966; Darwin, 2003). Other theorists examined human evolution through different theories, such as Neanderthal-phase, Presapiens, Tarsioid and Polytypic (Bowler, 1986). Despite the many theories in biological evolution, the concept of evolution has been adapted by different disciplines (such as the social sciences) to explain and describe the gradual change and development of people, communities, ideas, situations and activities. Besides, in its more general sense, evolution is understood as a gradual process of change and development (Cambridge Dictionary, 2021).

Through the years, researchers have enlightened us with useful chronological and historical accounts of various aspects of the human and social world, and how these have evolved through time. One such integral aspect of human life, movement and evolution is tourism, which has been associated with evolutionary-linked notions such as ‘change’, ‘development’ and ‘transformation’ (Telfer, 2002; Ma and Hassink, 2013; Brouder, 2020). Tourism is certainly not a new phenomenon but a process which has characterized human behaviour for centuries (Butler, 2015). It involves various processes that evolve through continuities and changes over time (Mellon and Bramwell, 2018). Tourism academics in the last few decades have investigated how tourism, or different forms of tourism, have evolved at specific destinations or during specific periods. For instance, Jasen (1991) discussed romanticism and the evolution of tourism on the Niagara frontier during the period 1790–1850. Butler (1985) referred to the evolution of the tourist industry of the Scottish Highlands, while Akama (1999) provided a detailed account regarding the evolution of tourism in Kenya. Ma and Hassink (2013) analysed tourism area development of the Gold Coast in Australia through interlinked concepts derived from evolutionary economic geography. While referring to tourism evolution, Papatheodorou (2004) acknowledged evolutionary economics that perceive the world as being in constant motion with companies battling in their effort to survive and compete with each other. Furthermore, he discusses spatial evolution and size dynamics in shaping the evolution of tourism resorts. In their study, McKercher and Wong (2021) tested the proposition that destinations have multiple life cycles and identified six different life cycle patterns of destinations that undergo similar evolutionary odysseys. Furthermore, the evolution of particular forms of tourism, such as the case of ‘event tourism’ (Getz, 2008), has also intrigued tourism researchers’ interest. Other researchers have examined the evolution of tourism policies, such as the case of Garcia (2014) who analysed and compared the way in which tourism policy evolved in Portugal and Spain. Others have focused on the temporal evolution of particular cases, such as Mellon and Bramwell (2018) who concentrated their study in the evolving institutional processes of a tourism-related forum and a closely linked partnership organization.

Tourism is indeed a complicated phenomenon. It is an industry but also a social phenomenon. It affects the environment and is affected by it. It is credited with as well as accused of impacting both positively and negatively the natural, economic and sociocultural environments of regions and destinations (de Kadt, 1979; Mathieson and Wall, 1982; Brown, 2010). It provides both intangible and tangible goods, yet purchases within its domain often do not secure tangibles since experiences and memories thereof are heavily relied upon (Sterchele, 2020). It delivers joyful but also sorrow experiences (Christou and Hadjielia Drotarova, 2021) while stimulating both cognitive and emotional psychological dimensions of humans (Christou, 2020). It rests on personal interactions, yet employs robots to perform service delivery (Park, 2020). Tourism’s workplace environment may ensure the restful and pleasant vocation of an individual, but the hard input of another person. It excites people to work within its enterprises. Simultaneously, it is criticized for causing burnout, physical and emotional exhaustion to service providers (Lee and Madera, 2019) or for taking advantage of new immigrants (Adler and Adler, 2004). Tourism brings together different disciplines, such as geography (Hall and Page, 2009), economy (Song et al., 2018), psychology (Filep and Laing, 2019), sociology (Cohen and Cohen, 2019) and technology (Tussyadiah et al., 2018). It is also a dynamic phenomenon that constantly affects the psychology and lives of people, social relationships, the environment, economies and spaces. Although it is affected by technology, such as through social media and the use of virtual reality and robots in services, it nonetheless maintains a human-centric character (Fig. 1.1).

Despite the idiosyncratic and complicated character of tourism, through the centuries, tourism development, activity, supply and demand have been fostered, hindered, impacted, shaped and influenced by interrelated factors; these being macro-environmental, micro-environmental and personal factors. Examples of external macro-environmental factors include wars, pandemics, natural disasters, economic cycles at a national and international level, terrorism threats/attacks, new emerging legislations, marketing dynamics, changing customer trends and technological innovations (refer to McKercher and Hui, 2004; Rittichainuwat, 2013; Pappas, 2021). Nonetheless, other micro-environmental factors have and continue to influence tourism, such as competition and endo-organizational dynamics like innovation, employee relations and the Corporate Social Responsibility of tourism organizations (refer to Font and Lynes, 2018; Guizzardi et al., 2019). Furthermore, as a psychosocial phenomenon, tourism has also relied heavily on the human factor, such as people’s willingness and proneness to provide hospitality to others. Despite the fact that the tourism industry is often driven by profit-oriented actions, it remains anthropocentric, resting on hospitableness and genuine philoxenic attitudes (Lashley and Morrison, 2011; Christou and Sharpley, 2019). Fig. 1.2 presents all the aforementioned factors in a graphical format.

A group of tourists stands at the foothills of the Acropolis of Athens, viewing the hilltop monuments. A Greece flag flies on top of a tall building structure.

Fig. 1.1. Tour guiding at the foothills of the Acropolis in Athens, Greece. A group of young tourists in the foothills of the Acropolis in Athens is guided through the history, culture and lifestyle of ancient Greece. Just like other forms of tourism activity, ‘traditional’ tour guiding has also evolved into self-guided audio means, technologically advanced interpretations in museums, robotics, tour apps and virtual touring. Even so, often tour guiding still holds on to the same characteristics, values and principles as in the past, with humans playing a central role in the delivery of immediate/direct and personal information, through passionate tour guides, energetic role-play acts, active interpretation and role playing (e.g. in theme parks). (Source: the author.)

Some specific examples of factors that have impacted, influenced and shaped tourism activity, development, demand and offering are provided in Fig. 1.3, which presents exogenous/macro-economic factors that have affected tourism during the 20th and 21st centuries. Such factors are connected with the tourism evolution in the subsequent chapters. For instance, we have seen how the current and previous pandemics (e.g. COVID-19, the Great Influenza epidemic, SARS and Ebola) have affected tourism demand at a regional and global level. Another example is how tourism is constantly and severely impacted by civil wars, regional and global conflicts, as well as terrorist attacks. These have not only caused the disruption of travel movements and tourism for leisure purposes, but also the creation of specific forms of tourism (such as the case of ‘battlefield’ tourism). Furthermore, environmental concerns have turned tourism organizations’ efforts into ‘greening’ the sector with sustainable initiatives taking place for the protection of the destination’s natural and sociocultural environment.

A Venn diagram of the interrelated factors that influence tourism evolution through a timeline from past to future.

Fig. 1.2. Interrelated factors influencing tourism evolution. (Source: the author.)

Click to see the long description.

Despite the factors mentioned above, space (physical and online) has been an important element that has shaped tourism throughout the years. In its traditional sense, tourism has been closely linked with geography: that is, people travelling to specific locations (e.g. a city or an island) for leisure, business, religious or medical reasons. The physical location of specific places has enabled them to develop and consecutively attract tourism flows. For instance, through the history of tourism we have seen coastal destinations with warm climate conditions (such as tropical islands) attracting tourists interested in the summer and water sports package. On the contrary, destinations with snow conditions have seen inflows of tourists during the winter months. Also, tourists may travel to specific ‘places’ for specific reasons, such as for religious and spiritual purposes. Nevertheless, often the ‘location’ of a hotel/resort plays a crucial role in its success. Of course, there are different reasons underpinning or shaping tourism activity and development, such as the availability of services/infrastructure and promotional dynamics. Even so, the location of destinations, sites, hotels, museums and theme parks has proven an extremely important factor for their development. Despite the ‘physical’ space, in the last few decades technological advancements have enabled Internet business and social (tourism) transactions to take place, including online presence of destinations/tourism organizations, online bookings via tour operators and social online platforms (such as Airbnb). Social media have also enabled the online transfer or sharing of information, reviews, comments and photographs, shaping travel preferences and tourism activity. Being supported by technological innovation and underpinned by pandemic (lockdown) forces, destinations, event organizers and tourism organizations made extensive use of online space while offering online and virtual tours. Finally, as we will examine in this book in pages to come, tourism moves beyond ‘earth-physical’ space, embracing travel beyond planet earth (i.e. space travel). Fig. 1.4 provides the main space pillars as have shaped and will shape tourism activity, development, demand/offer and evolution. As a concluding remark, tourism has evolved and will continue to evolve in the future. We (i.e. the academic community, tourism key stakeholders and practitioners) are called to contribute to a future evolution path that will build on well-established foundations of tourism, avoid mistakes and neglects of the past while ensuring a balance of benefits towards society and the natural environment.

An illustration of examples of factors that influenced tourism through a timeline from the year 1900 to present.

Fig. 1.3. Examples of factors that have influenced and shaped tourism during the 20th and 21st centuries. (Source: the author.)

Click to see the long description.

1.3 Aim and Importance of the Book

In the last few decades, tourism academics have provided detailed and very useful accounts of tourism’s past and present dynamics, and future perspectives. Krippendorf’s (1999) The Holiday Makers provides an analysis of present and future patterns of work and leisure while referring to the model of life in industrial society, the so-referred ‘holiday machine’, the humanization of everyday life, ending with proposals for travel humanization. Furthermore, Becker (2016) referred to the growth of travel and tourism while meticulously reporting among others a disturbing exposé of the travel industry by referencing topics such as cultural tourism, nature tourism and the ‘new giant’ (i.e. Chinese market) in tourism. In another interesting textbook of the 1990s, McIntosh et al. (1995) structure their work in five parts, discussing among others the development of tourism through the ages, while also referring to other important aspects such as travel behaviour, tourism development and supply–demand dynamics. Despite these, other scholars have also examined the tourism past, present and future and for this reason they adopted specific standpoints: they focused on specific destinations, sectors of the tourism economy and/or eras. For example, Burkart and Medlik (1981) drew a synthesis between practice and theory while reflecting tourism’s dynamic nature in the second half of the 20th century through a British viewpoint. Page (2005) provided a detailed account of the nexus of tourism with transport while referring to key issues affecting transport and tourism in the new millennium. In Wood’s (2021) edited book, the authors focused on the history of tourism in Latin America and the Caribbean, while Revels (2011) focused on the history of Florida tourism. In other cases, authors emphasized their attention on specific forms of tourism or subsectors of the tourism industry, such as the case of Hill (2020) who discussed the birth and evolution of the regional ‘theme parks’. Interestingly, certain academics have investigated tourism and its evolution from a social and anthropological standpoint. For instance, the second edition of Hosts and Guests by Smith (2012) assessed changes that have occurred in tourism from the first edition while providing a historical framework for examining the nature of tourism through an anthropological lens.

An illustration of the space pillars that influence tourism.

Fig. 1.4. Physical and web spaces influencing and shaping tourism. (Source: the author.)

Click to see the long description.

The aim of the present book is to provide an overview of tourism evolution in the past, present and future. This book discusses significant travel, tourism and hospitality events while referring to tourism-related notions and theories that were developed throughout the history of tourism. Even so, its scope moves beyond a detailed historical account of facts and events that occurred in the past. In more detail, this book departs from a basic description of these events and theories. Instead, it attempts to bridge these with contemporary issues, challenges and concerns, so that readers may make mental associations of the tourism past with the present and future, consecutively feeding their scepticism, decisions and even the development of new theories. While studying the evolution of tourism, one must look at the past: that is, the history of tourism throughout the centuries. History helps us to understand the past, predict the future and help in creating it. History lends a hand in the understanding of tourism (Towner and Wall, 1991). Chronological accounts and evolutionary research of forms of tourism have proven particularly useful for theoretical advancement and assisting professional practice (Getz, 2008). The studying of the history of tourism gives us wide opportunities to get a better understanding of how tourism has evolved through millennia, hence enabling a better understanding of how the industry functions in current days. As Butler (2015) aptly posited, to understand tourism fully it is necessary to review what has gone before. Likewise, Mellon and Bramwell (2018) stress that an analysis of historical influences and the sequencing of change are necessary to gain a fuller understanding of tourism processes. Furthermore, history provides us with the opportunity and the knowledge to learn from past mistakes in decision choices when it comes to tourism development and activity. As a result, it helps those involved in tourism (i.e. stakeholders) be more impartial as decision makers.

In specific regard to the usefulness of the present book, academics coming from different disciplines (such as tourism, hospitality and events, sociology, psychology and human geography) may use this book or parts of it to inform both their undergraduate and postgraduate courses and modules. The book covers various tourism-related events, forms, concepts and theories. These may inform university modules such as ‘Introduction to Tourism/ Hospitality’, ‘International Tourism/Hospitality/Events Management’, ‘Service Management’, ‘Events and Society’, ‘Understanding the Events Industry’, ‘Tourism Social Science’, ‘Sociology of Tourism’, ‘Tourism Development’ and ‘Tourism Geography’. Furthermore, through its holistic tourism approach, this book provides a solid basis for academics and students to get inspired for further research linked to tourism and the identification of dissertation/thesis topics. Perhaps most importantly, carefully selected ‘Case Studies’ linked with critical questions are provided at the end of each chapter. These are linked to previously discussed (in each chapter) events, theories, notions and concepts and may be used by academics for critical discussions and debates in their lectures/tutorials. Nonetheless, this book is written in such way to enable a clear and solid understanding of how tourism has evolved throughout the centuries through the use of practical examples while describing present challenges and future implications. The book provides several practitioner-linked, real-life examples and case studies derived from various travel, hospitality, event and general tourism-related organizations and enterprises. Finally, people who simply have a passion in travel, tourism, hospitality and events, as well as students coming from other disciplines, may find this book both interesting and intriguing, especially if they wish to progress their postgraduate studies in the field of travel, events, hospitality and tourism.

1.4 Structure of the Book

Historians and scholars in social sciences (including tourism) may use different approaches for ‘structuring’ themes in historical and evolutionary textbooks. Some may structure their findings based on underpinning factors influencing human or industrial activity, such as sociodemographic and economic factors and changes. Others may take particular segments/sectors within a socio-economic phenomenon such as tourism and deal with their evolution separately. Such an example is a specific part of a textbook dealing with the development and evolution of ‘coastal tourism’ and another part discussing the development and evolution of ‘mobility’ or ‘transport’. In other cases, themes may be based on and fall under specific ‘periods’ of human history. The structure of the present book was primarily based on the chronological periods of human history and activity. More specifically, the structure of this book is based on the periodization logic and study which creates links between specific chronological frames and series of historical elements (Baker, 1997). This involves the process of study and categorization of the past into discrete as well as quantified named blocks of time (Rabinowitz, 2014). Although determining the precise beginning/ending of ‘periods’ in time may seem arbitrary and sometimes confusing, the periodization of history enables the provision of convenient terms for periods of time that share relatively certain stable, common characteristics and foci. Rather aptly, Green (1992) postulates that periodization is among the most prominent theoretical properties of history, and notes that scholars cannot render the past intelligible if they do not subdivide it into coherent and manageable units of time.

Historians have ‘divided’ eras in different time frames. For instance, Wassenhoven (2018) referred to ‘Ancient Kingdoms’, ‘Middle Ages’ and ‘Modern Era’. What has been labelled as ‘ancient history’ seems to cover the time period in which scientists found the earliest remains of human activity to around AD 650, although some place the end of the period earlier. For instance, Loewe and Shaughnessy (1999) referred to the history of ‘ancient China’ from the origins of civilization to 221 BC. The post-classical era (or Middle Ages for Europe) follows the ancient history period following the fall of major civilizations, covering the advent of Islam, the Middle Kingdoms of India, the Nara period in Japan, the Byzantine Empire and the Viking Age, until around 1500. What has been regarded as ‘modern history’ covers the period of 1500 onwards, with subdivisions often made between the ‘Early modern period’ (1500–1750), the ‘Late modern period’ (1750–1945) and the ‘Contemporary period’ (1945–present). For instance, Kirby (2013) referred to the Baltic world during the ‘Early modern period’ from around 1500 to around 1770. Zicheng (2007) discussed the history of ‘Contemporary’ Chinese literature while referring to the decades following the 1950s.

Based on the above, the present book was structured based on specific periods with each chapter in it corresponding to a particular era of human history. These are as follows: Chapter 2, The Ancient History of Tourism (c.9000 BC–AD 650); Chapter 3, Tourism during Post-Classical Times (500–1500); Chapter 4, Tourism during the Early Modern Period (1500–1750); Chapter 5, Tourism during the Late Modern Period (1750–1945); Chapter 6, Tourism during the Contemporary Period (1945–Early 2020s). Despite the aforementioned chapters that correspond to signified periods as presented above, an additional chapter (Chapter 7) discusses some future prospects of tourism based on the evolution of tourism throughout the (previous) years. At the end of each chapter there are case studies that are based on topics discussed in each chapter, and these are derived from the contemporary tourism scene. These case studies and topics of discussion attempt to bridge the past with the present and the future.

The book is carefully structured to address the following:

1. Description . It may be perceived that a book linked to ‘evolution’ and ‘history’ possesses a strong narrative orientation. Historical accounts and descriptions of certain events that have occurred in the past are useful for readers to gain insights of the previous that has shaped or altered the current , and in all likelihood will inform the future . The pages of this book provide a linkage of past and current events. Although it is impossible to cover every single occurrence and event related to tourism throughout the centuries, the book provides a solid description of events that have shaped and continue to shape global tourism evolution. A plethora of examples of events from around the world during different eras are documented.

2. Research and analysis . The author has undertaken a thorough academic research from various fields, such as tourism and hospitality, sociology, psychology, economy/business, geography, history and philosophy. Information is analysed and blended to provide a detailed, cohesive and thought-provoking narrative that is based on academic research. In a vigilant attempt to bridge theory with practice, the author’s secondary research embraced articles from other reliable sources, such as well-respected newspapers and official websites of tourism and hospitality organizations. Nonetheless, learners are urged to delve deeper into certain tourism-related themes via case studies (in each chapter) and the questions that follow these.

3. Evaluation and critical thinking . The book moves beyond a basic description of historical tourism-related events. The reader will find on several occasions that past events and notions are carefully linked to current situations and challenges that shape the current tourism scene. The extensive use of examples, real case studies and the connection of these with philosophical or theoretical notions urge readers to employ evaluation techniques, critical thinking and their personal views to respond to current and future challenges of the tourism industry. Case studies that accompany each chapter are based on tourism-related topics and notions that have been covered in each chapter. These provide both a theoretical and a practical perspective. Also, these case studies are directly linked with various sectors of the tourism, travel and hospitality industry, such as airlines, museums and hospitality enterprises. These case studies are selected to reflect various areas of discussion that have attracted the attention of both the tourism academic community and practitioners, and include various topics such as, for example, ‘tourism development’, ‘tourism experiences’, ‘niche forms of tourism’ (e.g. dark tourism and cultural tourism), notions that have found applicability in the tourism sector (e.g. ‘luxury’, ‘quality’ and ‘satisfaction’), impacts of tourism and technological innovations in tourism (e.g. virtual reality in tourism).

Nonetheless, there are some clarifications to be made:

1. As mentioned earlier, the book is primarily based on the periodization logic that creates links between specific chronological frames and series of historical elements and incidents. Although the author has attempted to differentiate and divide ‘periods’ in history into specific time frames as presented and explained above, there is always the debate of why not distinguish periods/eras differently. This is common among historical narrative, yet most importantly it does not affect the quality of the book.

2. From the periodization scepticism/perspective, tourism-linked topics are discussed within certain ‘eras/periods’. The author has attempted to place certain evolutions of travel and tourism in specific time frames so that readers may understand when incidences occurred and how they evolved in time. However, in some cases it is not clear in which precise era to place a specific activity. For example, the growth of the airline industry and its evolution is placed within the ‘Contemporary Period’ although ‘airship’ sightseeing flights occurred earlier than this period.

3. It may be argued that the book has a more ‘European/Western’ orientation since some of the key topics that are discussed were based (geographically speaking) in Europe, such as the case of the ‘Grand Tour’ that was undertaken by a wealthy social elite in continental Europe. Nonetheless, information, data and case studies are derived from the international tourism scene.

4. The book does not discuss separately the development of tourism in specific world regions (such as Europe). Instead, it focuses on the development of tourism at a global level with examples provided by the international scene. This does not imply that no reference is made at a regional level. For instance, a specific section of the book makes reference to the rise of the Asian tourism market in the contemporary period. Also, ‘coastal’ tourism and impacts are discussed at an international and not regional (e.g. Mediterranean) level, with examples provided from various countries around the globe.

5. This book provides a historical and evolutionary overview of tourism in a rather concise and direct manner. In its rather limited number of pages it was impossible to cover every single occurrence or topic in detail. Readers may feel that some sectors or aspects of tourism (e.g. the