Afghanistan Graveyard of Empires

By John A. Tyler

During the spring and summer of 2021, global news reports were filled with the impending US/NATO withdrawal from Afghanistan. At best, it would be viewed as a stalemate, with an orderly transition to a stable, US-backed Afghan government. At worse, it would be looked upon as two decades of futile war, ending with a shameful retreat that left the county at the mercy of a ruthless Taliban regime. What went wrong?
This close look at the history of foreign invasions of the country, from Alexander the Great to the US/NATO occupation, gives insight into the geographical and cultural reasons this land, in the valley of the Hindu Kush mountain range, has long earned the sobriquet: Graveyard of Empires.

• Language: English
• Publisher: John A. Tyler
• Release date: Oct 17, 2021
• ISBN: 9781387683567

John A. Tyler

John A. Tyler lives in the Dallas, TX area with his wife and son. He enjoys reading, writing and traveling with his family.

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INTRODUCTION

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A map of Afghanistan

All during the spring and early summer of 2021, you could not escape it. There was a segment on every evening newscast on it, and as we got into the month of August, it dominated the news cycle. It, of course, was coverage of the impending US/NATO withdrawal from Afghanistan. At best, the withdrawal could be viewed as a stalemate, part of an orderly transition of power to a stable, US-backed Afghan government. At worse it would be looked upon as another shameful retreat, after two decades of futility, even worse than the debacle of the U.S.’s exit from Vietnam. By the end of August, it was clear what the verdict of history would be, and the finger pointing, and second guessing, had already begun.

For the best part of two centuries, the region that is now the country of Afghanistan has been one filled with turmoil and death. As spectators, many in the world are aware of the situation in the country in the aftermath of the September 11, 2001 attacks on the World Trade Center in New York City and Pentagon in Washington, D.C. The United States, under the leadership of President George W. Bush, decided to invade Afghanistan to retaliate against the ruling Taliban government, who had refused to hand over Al Qaeda terrorist leader Osama bin Laden.

In the late summer of 2021, the last American troops, and those of its allies, began to exit Afghanistan, hopeful that the peace deals made with the Taliban would keep the country safe. The withdrawal had been negotiated earlier by former President Donald Trump, over an 18-month period which saw US troop levels drop from a high of 100,000 (under former President Barack Obama) to a low of 8,600. After Trump left office, the timeline was extended by several months and it fell to the incoming administration to implement.

As the deadline neared, the withdrawal precipitated concern on a global scale. President Biden said, at the time, that the process would be responsible, deliberate and safe, and that the likelihood there’s going to be the Taliban overrunning everything and owning the whole country is highly unlikely (Ordonez, 2021). However, barely a few days after the drawdown of coalition troops began in earnest, Taliban fighters captured vast swathes of territory, finally taking over Kabul on August 15, 2021. Global concerns of the Taliban reverting to its previous campaign of repression of women, the LGBTQ community and other ethnic/religious minorities was writ large in every global newscast…and this was before rumors of reprisal killings of former interpreters and others who had provided support to coalition troops over last 20 years.

Fears surrounding the chaotic environment at the airport, as thousands of Afghans tried to get on the few remaining flights out of the country, were realized on August 26, 2021: Hamid Karzai International Airport became the site of a suicide bombing attack, killing 182 people, of which 169 were Afghan civilians and thirteen were United States military personnel (Trofimov et al., 2021). In the following days, the United States launched airstrikes in Afghanistan on August 27 and 28, the second of which would kill 10 innocent Afghan civilians, including seven children and an aid worker (Schmitt & Cooper, 2021). The airport bombing, and the subsequent drone attacks, precipitated condemnation on all sides and particularly of the Biden administration’s decisions regarding the withdrawal. Pundits speculated on what should have been done differently, even, in some cases, re-evaluating the two decade-long campaign, altogether.

However, those who had some insight into the history of the region may not have been surprised by the eventual outcome of the coalition's campaign in Afghanistan. They would view this particular American defeat not only as predictable, but even inevitable. They would know that the region of Afghanistan has continuously been invaded by foreign powers, attempting to install puppet regimes, only to face either abject military defeat or a long-running and brutal insurgency. In most cases, these failed foreign invaders where at the height of the powers, with many viewed as the most dominant militaries of their time. It is no wonder, then, that Afghanistan has long carried the grim sobriquet, ‘Graveyard of Empires.’

This has been going on since the time of Alexander the Great in the 3rd century B.C. and has continued throughout the British and Soviet invasions in the 19th and 20th centuries, respectively. All these incursions into Afghanistan have resulted in major losses to the invading powers, putting an indelible stain on their global empire-building ambitions.

In this book, we will explore the history of Afghanistan to examine why the country has such a unique position in the annals of history, and what this means for the current situation under Taliban rule.

Chapters 1 and 2 concern the ancient and pre-history of Afghanistan, before the onset of European imperialism. These chapters will detail why Afghanistan is also considered the Cradle of Civilization, with the earliest humans being found here, dating to more than 50,000 years ago. We will also see its role in the ancient Persian and Greek empires.

Chapter 3 focuses on the invasions of the land of modern-day Afghanistan in the Middle Ages, primarily focusing on the Mughal and Mongol invasions and thereafter.

Chapter 4 explores the history of British imperialism in the area, the Anglo-Afghan Wars, and why the British faced defeat in the region.

Chapter 5 focuses on contemporary Afghanistan the Soviet invasion, the United States’ hand in the empowerment of the Mujahideen, and the aftermath of the Soviet withdrawal.

Chapter 6 explores the events of the 21st century in Afghanistan, primarily following the United States-led invasion of the country, its subsequent withdrawal, and the resurgence of the Taliban.

What makes Afghanistan such an interesting, special, and dangerous land? As you read these chapters, you will notice that all these major events in Afghanistan’s history follow the same trajectory and for the same reasons. Invading forces have regularly underestimated the power and effort it would take to maintain control in Afghanistan, from Alexander the Great to the recent United States presidents.

Chapter 1: Early History of Afghanistan

The region known as Afghanistan today has always been a historically relevant area. After all, part of present-day Afghanistan was home to one of the oldest-known civilizations of humankind: the Indus Valley Civilization. This region of South Asia is not just known for its early civilizations; it is also one of the most heavily contested territories in the world, with major powers vying for control for centuries, which we will delve into in future chapters.

However, we will initially explore the ancient history of the region of modern-day Afghanistan, which can help us understand why it has been such a sought-after territory, and why this location continues to hold major geopolitical influence. This chapter will also delve into the topography of the region, which has historically played a significant role in Afghanistan’s ability to repel empire-building invaders.

Afghanistan in the Prehistoric Era

Historians believe that humans were living in the historical area of Afghanistan as early as 50,000 years ago. Artifacts that have been dated to this era, indicate that these early humans were farmers and herdsmen, belonging to various tribes that populated the region. There is also evidence of thriving human settlements through the Stone Age, Neolithic, and early Bronze Age eras. One such site that unearthed many Stone Age tools dated to 30,000 B.C. was the rock shelter at Kara Kamar. Another site was the Aq Kupruk, where archaeologists found sophisticated tools, leading them to call the toolmakers the Michelangelos of the Upper Paleolithic (Magnier, 2013). The last site was of particular significance: archaeologists uncovered the carving of a human face on a small limestone pebble. This could very well be the first artistic representation of a human face.

Excavations in and around northern Afghanistan also suggest that the people here were some of the earliest to cultivate plants and domesticate animals, with some peasant farms dating to between 30,000 and 20,000 B.C. Peasant farms also led to the development of farming villages, which were dated to between 7,000 and 5,000 B.C.

As we move into the Bronze Age, we come to one of the most important eras of South Asian history: the Indus Valley Civilization.

Indus Valley Civilization

Why is the era of the Indus Valley Civilization so important when it comes to this region of South