Chemistry, Biology and Cancer: the Bond: The Bond

By Amin Elsersawi Ph.D.

This book is about how your body works, and about the chemical reaction involved inside your body. Understanding the biology and the chemistry of your body may help you to understand how cancers grow and spread, and how treatments might affect you.

In this book, biology will deal with the activities and characteristics of all organisms in human which fall into two major categories: reproduction metabolism. The mechanism of reproduction is now known to be controlled by the properties of certain large molecules called nucleic acids that transcribed the entire DNA helix at once into mRNA and also the cross selection between alleles(alleles control the same inherited characteristics) in both parents.
The other major activity of the human’s living organisms is metabolism, the physical, chemical, and physiological processes by which energy and synthesis of proteins, hormones, and enzymes are used in such activities as reproduction (including growth), activities, and responsiveness to the environment, which also constitutes the activities of the nervous system.
The nitrogen bases form the double-strand of DNA through weak hydrogen bond; have different shapes constituting adenosine, guanine thymine, and cytosine.
Now that we’ve looked at the introduction, we should look at the structure of the chemical level that includes all chemical levels that includes alchemical substances necessary for life, Chapter 1.
Chapter 2 deals with the physiology that deals with the internal working of living things, including functions such as metabolism, respiration, energy, and internal processes.
Chapter 3 is the main core of the book that will discuss causes of cancers focusing on cellular oxidation and reduction due to excess donation or absorption of hydrogen. Avoidance of those elements such as Aluminum(Al), Silicon(Si), Phosphorus(P), Sulfur(S), Fluorine(F) and Chlorine(Cl) could reduce the risk of cancer due to the non-oxidative breakdown of certain substances.

• Language: English
• Publisher: Xlibris US
• Release date: Jul 17, 2009
• ISBN: 9781469124711

Amin Elsersawi Ph.D.

Amin Elsersawi is a citizen of Canada since 1985. He received his Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering with emphasis in power electronic from Bradford University, U.K. He is a professional engineer registered with the Professional Engineering Society of Ontario Canada Dr. Elsersawi is currently retired. He previously served as general director for notable power generation and distribution energy utility. Prior to that, he was a chief of electrical engineering for the Public Work and Government Services Canada. He published more than 100 papers and reports in engineering and mathematic, biology, astronomy, and chemistry. He spent more than 15 years in teaching at universities and colleges. His main research interests are twentieth-century engineering, astronomy and chemistry. He is the author of the book Chemistry, Biology and Cancer: the Bond.

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Dedication

I dedicate this book to my wife Randa, my two daughters Suha and Dima, and my son Basil for the time this effort stole from them. My gratitude goes to them for their patience, understanding and encouragement.

To the patients with cancer, and all other diseases, you may be less confused and generously blessed and cured.

Copyright © 2009 by Amin Elsersawi, Ph.D. 564419

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the copyright owner.

Xlibris

844-714-8691

www.Xlibris.com

Library of Congress Control Number:   2009904582

Rev. date: 06/29/2021

This book is not designed to provide medical advice or professional services. It is intended to be for educational and demonstrational use only. The information and thoughts provided in this book are not a substitute for professional care and should not be used for diagnosing, establishing, or treating a health problem or a disease. Your doctor is the only person you should consult if you have, or suspect a cancer or a health problem.

Appendix

Chapter 1 - Chemistry

Introduction

Preface

Chemistry and life

Atoms

Molecules

Bonding of atoms

Valence-Shell Electron-Pair Repulsion theory (VSEPR)

Lewis structures of atoms

Lewis ionic structures of atoms

Components of the cellular life

Water

Carbohydrates

Types of carbohydrates

Polysaccharides

Starch and glycogen

Cellulose and chitin polysaccharides

Nucleotide; sugar, nitrogenous hydroxyl, and phosphate

Lipid

Types of lipids

Protein

Non-polar side chain

Polar; unchanged side chains

Example of long chains

1-8 Ester

1-9 Lipoproteins

1-10 Glycolipid

1-11 Sphingolipid

1-12 Steroid

1-13 Mucin

1-14 Oxidation and Reduction

Oxidation and reduction in term of oxygen

Oxidation and reduction in term of hydrogen

Examples

Sulphur trioxide

water

Potassium chloride

Calcium carbonate

Iron and hydrochloric acid

Oxidation state of elements

Beryllium

Carbon

Nitrogen

Isotopes

Alpha, Beta, and Gamma

Half time

Polyatomic ions

Carbonate or carbon trioxide ion CO3-2

Nitrate ion NO3-

Nitrite ion NO2-

Nitronium ion NO+

Sulfate ion SO4-2

Sulfite ion SO3-2

Hypochlorite ion ClO-

Chlorite ion ClO2-

Hydrogen carbonate (bicarbonate) ion HCO3-

Phosphate ion PO4-

Cyanide ion CN-

Ammonium ion NH4-

Mercury ion Hg2+2

Hydronium ion H3O+

1-17Acids and basis

1-17-1 acidity in terms of Ka and pKa

1-18 acetylene series

1-18-1 Alkanes

1-18-2 Alkenes

1-18-2-1 Bonding with alkenes

1-18-3 Alkynes

1-18-4 Arenes

1-19 Numbering of IUPAC (International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry)

1-19-1 Functional groups

1-19-2 IUPAC names of medical drugs

1-19-2-3 Benadryl (antihistamines)

1-19-2-4 Cialis (dysfunction)

1-19-2-5 Heparin ( high blood pressure and anticoagulant)

1-19-2-6 Ibuprofen sodium (anti-inflammatory)

1-19-2-7 Aspirin (aches and pain)

1-19-2-8 Vitamin C (scurvy)

1-19-2-9 Tylenol (fever and headaches)

1-19-2-10 Warfarin (rodenticide, anticoagulant)

1-20 Atomic orbital (s, p, d)

1-21 Solubility

1-21-1 solubility rules

Chapter 2 - Biology

Introduction

Cell biology

2-2-1 Membranes

2-2-2 Mitochondria

2-2-3 Nucleus

2-2-4 Cytoplasm

2-2-5 Lysosomes

2-2-6 Ribosomes

2-2-7 Rough endoplasmic Reticulum

2-2-8 Golgi apparatus

2-2-9 Cytoskeleton

2-2-10 Vacuole

2-2-11 Centrioles within centrosomes

2-2 Cellular respiration

2-3 Molecular biology

2-3-1 Protein structure

2-3-2 Peptide and protein sequences

2-3-3 Lysozome polypeptide

2-4 Enzymes and enzyme mechanism

2-5 Nucleopophilic bond

2-5-1 metal ionphilic

2-6 Biogenetics

2-7 Cell divisions

2-7-1 Mitosis

2-7-1-1 prophase

2-7-1-2 metaphase

2-7-1-3 Anaphase

2-7-1-4 Telophase

2-7-1-5 Cytokinesis

2-7-2 Meiosis

2-8 Heredity

2-9 Immunology

2-9-1 Concept of immunology

2-9-2 Innate immunity

2-9-3 Cell of the innate immune system

2-9-3-1 White blood cells

2-9-3-2 Mast cells

2-9-3-3 Phagocyte

2-9-3-4 Macrophages

2-9-3-5 Neutophils

2-9-3-6 Dentritic cells

2-9-3-7 Basophiles and eosinophils

2-9-3-8 Natural killer cells

2-9-4 Factors affect the immune system

2-9-4-1 Anatomic barriers

2-9-4-2 Physiological barriers

2-9-4-3 Other factors

2-9-5 Adaptive immunity

2-9-5-1 Stages of B and T cells

2-9-5-2 B cells

2-9-5-3 T cells and lymphokins

2-9-6 Structures of the immune system

2-9-6-1 Bone marrow

2-9-6-2 Thymus gland

2-9-6-3 Lymph nodes

2-9-6-4 Spleen

2-9-7 Circulation in the lymph system

2-9-8 Mechanism of the immune system

2-9-9 Disorder of the immune system

2-9-10 Cancer of the immune system

2-9-10-1 Vaccines

2-9-10-2 Risks of vaccines

2-9-11 Transformation immunity

2-10 Human respiratory systems

2-10-1 disease of the lungs

2-11 Hormones

2-11-1 Endocrines

2-12 Microbiology

2-12-1 Grouping of eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells

2-12-2 Growth of bacteria

2-12-3 Food Microbiology

2-13 Food safety

2-14 Biomedical engineering

2-15 Psychology and clinical physiology

2-16 physiology

2-17 Pharmacology and toxicology

2-17-1 Neuropsyco pharmacology

2-17-2 Antimicrobial chemotherapy

2-17-3 Antiviral chemotherapy

2-17-4 Cancer chemotherapy

2-18 Human brain

2-18-1 Frontal lobe

2-18-2 Central xulcus

2-18-3 Motor corvix

2-18-4 Somatosensory cortex

2-18-5 Parietal lobe

2-18-6 Visual cortex

2-18-7 Occipital Lobe

2-18-8 cerebellum

2-18-9 Hypothalamus

Chapter 3 - Cancer

Introduction

3-1 What is cancer cell?

3-2 Cancer cell cycle

3-3 Functions of genes and proteins on the cell division cycle

3-4 Phosphorylations

3-5 Oxygenation theory (Warburg hypothesis)

3-6 Cori cycle

3-6-1 Interchanges between pyruvate and lactate

3-7 Opponents of Warburg hypothesis

3-8 Hydrogenation

3-9 Competition between the nucleotides of viruses DNA and human DNA

3-9-1 Recumbent DNA (rDNA)

3-9-2 Process of production of rDNA

3-10 Glucose transporter protein (GLUT1 - GLUT5)

3-11 Radiation

3-11-1 Types of radiation

3-12 Cancer causing carcinogens

3-13 Groups of cancer as per the IARC (international agency for Research on cancer)

3-13-1 Group 1

3-13-2 Group 2A

3-13-3 Group 2B

3-13-4 Group 3

3-13-5 Group 4

3-14 Types of cancers

3-14-1 Lung cancer

3-14-2 Breast cancer

3-14-3 Colon and rectum cancer

3-14-4 Stomach cancer

3-14-5 Prostate cancer

3-14-6 Liver cancer

3-14-7 Cervical cancer

3-14-8 Non-Hodgkin lymphoma, and Hodgkin disease

3-14-9 Ovarian cancer

3-14-10 Kidney cancer

3-14-11 pancreatic cancer

3-14-12 Brain and nervous system cancer

3-14-13 Corpus uteri cancer

3-14-14 Myeloma

3-15 Global cancer statistics, 2002

3-15-1 Men and women cancers

3-15-2 Female cancer

3-16 care and prevention of cancer

DISCLAIM FOR CONTENTS OF THIS BOOK

3-16-1 level of pH

3-16-2 Oxygen

3-16-3 Fluorine

3-16-4 lead

3-16-5 Retalin

3-16-6 Diethanolamine (DEA)

3-16-7 Nitrozation

3-16-8 Hyperthermia

3-16-9 Genetically modified (GM) food

3-16-10 Dioxin

3-16-11 Thalidomide

3-16-12 Asbestos, erionite (zeolite) and gesmondine

3-16-13 Leptin

3-16-14 Minerals

3-17 Vitamins and amino acid without minerals

3-18 Author’s exclusive opinion about causes

3-18-1 Estrogen and progesterone in women

3-18-2 Waves of visible light

3-18-3 Oxygenation your blood

3-18-4 Hydrogen (H+ in lactate) and DNA’s oxygen (O-)

3-18-5 High voltage pulses and patients with bacterial and viral diseases

3-18-6 Change of bacterial environmental requirements

3-18-7 Monoclonal antibodies

3-18-8 Leak in the gastrointestinal tissues

Introduction

This book is the first of its kind in providing physicians with a solid understanding of molecular biology and its application for the diagnosis and treatment of cancer. Cutting edge diagnosis and anticancer therapies that are presented include gene transfer, genetic engineering, controls of cell growth, and carcinogenesis. It is intended for scientists, physicians, pharmacists, engineers, teachers, computer programmers, and anyone with a background or strong interest in chemistry, biology, and cancer. The book has three chapters:

• Chemistry

This chapter includes information on atomic orbitals, polarity of molecules, electronegativity, ionic and covalent bonding, isotopes and reactivity, chemical structures, isomerism, resonance, hydrogen bonding, IUPAC nomenclature, ionization, chemical reactivity, acidity and alkalinity, amino acids, names of organic compounds, functional group, molecular biology, carbohydrates, lipid, protein, and nuclear medicine and radioactivity.

• Biology

The contents of this chapter includes information on molecular and cell biology, physiological biology with details on membrane, mitochondrion, microbules, cytoskeletal system, protein synthesis, and nucleus. It includes discussions on centrosome cycle, components of the cell, NAD, ATP, ADP and ADP and ATP exchange, glycolysis process, Kerb cycle, amino acids and steriosomers of amino acids.

The chapter provides the reader with information about cell division (mitosis and meiosis), heredity and Mendel’s genetics, chromosomes, DNA and RNA.

By providing the physician with a solid understanding of the structure of the immune system for the cause and treatment of cancer, this chapter reviews the innate and adaptive immunity such as the process of killing viruses and antigens, structure of the immune system, blood cells’ types, cytokines, and stem cells and lymph nodes.

Written in a user-friendly format, the chapter will be welcomed by all people eager to sharpen their own knowledge of biomedical engineering, physiology, toxilogy, antiviral chemotherapy, and interaction of microbiology with the brain.

• Cancer

This chapter explains key topics such as the functions of genes and proteins of the cell division cycle, suppression of genes, oxygenation theory (Otto Warburg), aerobic and anaerobic of glucose, lactate and fermentation, and hydrogenation. For students, yet a broad understanding is essential in the competition between viruses DNA and human DNA, gram positive and gram negative bacteria, and removal of plasmid

DNA by chemical agents. More advanced theories in tumour development based on cleaving and isolation of plasmid DNA is also discussed in this chapter. It covers topics extending from general radiation effect on cancer to harmonics and frequency, pulses and impulses through wave length of radiation.

Groups of cancer as established by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC); groups 1, 2A, 2B, 3 and 4 are also described.

The chapter does not end at this point. It continues to provides a concise yet comprehensive overview of conversion of ribose to deoxiribose, DNA cross linking, monofunctional and biofunctional, damage of DNA, enlargement of protein by melamine, and the life cycle.

For all readers interested in types of cancers, the chapter outlines the following cancers together with their symptoms, treatment, causes, and pictures of each type: lung cancer, breast cancer, colorectal cancer, stomach cancer, prostate cancer, liver cancer, cervical cancer, non-Hodgkin lymphoma, Hodgkin disease, ovarian cancer, kidney cancer, brain and nervous system cancer, corpus uteri cancer, and myeloma.

Before the end of the chapter, the author outlined global cancer statistics in developed and developing countries for the year 2002.

The chapter concludes with the author’s exclusive opinion about causes and treatments of cancer.

To conclude, this book offers really essential information for people recently diagnosed with cancer, who want to improve their chances of defeating it. It is very useful in enabling readers to understand the biological problems involved in cancer management. It is extremely helpful for cancer patients and sufferers, their families and friends. The book is appealing reading and an ideal book for everyone interested in the subject of cancer.

The author believes that the style of the book and the way in which it is presented will persuade readers, who may not have otherwise, perused an interest in cancer and care of other diseases, to further develop their learning in the fields of chemistry, biology and cancer.

Finally, my thanks go to Dr. Suha Eltayeb for serving as a reviewer. Her contributions of time and thoughtfulness are very much appreciated, as well as her comprehensive comments and suggestions. I can tell her how satisfying the review is to me

Enjoy reading…

Amin Elsersawi, Ph.D.

Preface

Cancer disease is characterized by excessive, uncontrolled growth of abnormal cells which invade and destroy other tissues and organs. Cancer develops in almost any organ or tissue of the body, but certain types of cancer are more life-threatening than others. There are many types of cancers; sarcomas, carcinomas, leukemia, and lymphomas. In the United States and Canada cancer ranks the second leading cause of death, after, the heart disease.

For reasons not known , cancer rates vary by race, gender, and geographic region. For instance, more men than women develop cancer, and African Americans are more likely to develop cancer than people of any other racial group in North America. The types of cancers vary socioeconomically. For example, breast cancer is more common in wealthy countries, however, cervical cancer is more common in poor countries

Although people of all ages develop cancer, most types of cancer are more common in people over the age of 50. Cancer usually develops gradually over many years, the result of a complex mix of nutritional, behavioural, environmental and hereditary factors. Scientists do not completely understand the causes of cancer, but they know that certain life quality and lifestyle choices can reduce the risk of developing many types of cancer.

An oxygenation theory was postulated by the Nobel laureate Otto Heinrich Warburg, who hypothesized that cancerous cells generate energy represented in the form of chemical reaction of ATP (adenosine triphosphate) that is needed and retrieved by non- oxidative breakdown of glucose ( a process called glycolysis) according to Krebs cycle.

This book is about how your body works, and about the chemical reaction involved inside your body.

By discussing the biology and the chemistry of your body may help you to understand how cancers grow

and spread, and how treatments might affect you. 

In this book, biology will deal with the activities and characteristics of all organisms in human which fall into two major categories: reproduction and metabolism. The mechanism of reproduction is now known to be controlled by the properties of certain large molecules called nucleic acids that transcribed the entire DNA helix at once into mRNA and also the cross selection between alleles (which control the same inherited characteristics) in both parents.

The other major activity of a human’s living organisms is metabolism-the physical, chemical, and physiological processes by which energy and synthesis of proteins, hormones, and enzymes are used in such activities such as reproduction (including growth), activities, and responsiveness to the environment, which also constitutes the activities of the nervous system.

The nitrogen bases form the double-strand of DNA through weak hydrogen bond; have different shapes constituting adenosine, guanine thymine, and cytosine.

Now that we’ve looked at the introduction, we should look at the structure of the chemical level that includes all chemical levels that includes alchemical substances necessary for life, Chapter 1.

Chapter 2 reveals the physiology that deals with the internal working of living things, including those functions such as metabolism, respiration, energy, and internal processes.

The main core of the book consists of Chapter 3. It will discuss the causes of cancers focusing on cellular oxidation and reduction due to excess donation or absorption of hydrogen. The avoidance of those elements such as Aluminum(Al), Silicon(Si), Phosphorus(P), Sulfur(S), Fluorine(F) and Chlorine(Cl) could reduce the risk of cancer due to the non-oxidative breakdown of certain substances.

CHAPTER 1

Chemistry and Life

Chemistry

Chemistry is the science that deals with the compositions and properties of matters. Understanding of chemistry and chemical reaction helps us to comprehend the normal and abnormal functioning of our body. Before we involve into the detailed chemical activity of the body, we provide some insights into the fundamental forms of matter such as atoms, molecules and elements:

1-1 Atoms

The atom is the smallest unit of an element that holds the chemical and physical properties of that element. An atom has an electron cloud consisting of negatively charged electrons orbiting a dense nucleus. The nucleus contains positively charged proton and electrically neutral neutrons, Figure (1-1).

Figure (1): The Atom

Image23057.tif

Matter is composed of molecules, and molecules are composed of atoms. This is a consequence of the manner in which the electrons are distributed throughout space in the attractive field exerted by the nuclei. The nuclei act as the center of attraction of a cloud of negative charge. The electron density describes the manner in which the electronic charge is shaped in the real space. The electron density and the direction of rotation shape the characteristic property and determine the appearance and form of matter.

When the number of protons in the nucleus equals the number of electrons, the atom is electrically neutral and stable. When there is a difference in numbers between protons and electrons, then it is called "ionic atom’ which carries a positive or negative charge. An atom is classified according to its number of protons and neutrons: the number of protons determines the type and the name of chemical element and the number of neutrons determines the isotope of that element.

1-2 Molecules

Molecule can found as a unit of two or more atoms held together by covalent bonds or ionic bonds. We shall discuss both types of bonds, but will begin with the binding of atoms. Atom is like a ball with three dimensions. So the attraction and repulsion between atoms are accomplished also in multidimensional manner. Let us consider the molecule of the ethylene Gas    C2H4. It has the molecular structure of H2C=CH2 and it can be shown in a Planner form of figure (2-1):

Figure (2): Planner chemical form of ethylene molecule

Image23064.tif

Figure 3-(a-1) shows the electron density in the plane containing the two carbon and four hydrogen nuclei of

the molecule ethylene, portrayed as a projection in the third dimension and in the form of a contour map. The

actual density of carbon atom is much larger than the one shown in the picture, http://www.hec.utah.edu/anions/index_files/image

Figure 3 (a-1) - Electron density of ethylene

Image23071.tif

Figure 3-(b-1) is the same as in Figure (3- (a) but for a plane obtained by a rotation of 90° about the C-C axis, a plane containing only the carbon nuclei.

Figure 3 (b-1) - Electron density of ethylene rotated 90°

Image23078.tif

Figure 3(c-1) Again, the same portrayal as in Figure 1a, but this time for a plane perpendicular to the C-C axis at its mid-point.

Figure 3 (c-1) – Elsectron density perpendicular to Figure 3-a

Image23085.tif

The three pictures of the molecule corresponding to above three figures Figure (3-(a-1), (b-1), and (c-1) are shown in the Figure (4-1) below.

Figure (4): Envelopes of the electron density for the molecule ethylene

Image23092.tif

1-3 Bonding of atoms

There are mainly two types of the bonding of atoms: covalent and ionic bonding.

A covalent bond is a form of chemical bonding that is distinguished by the sharing of pairs of electrons between atoms. The stability of covalent bonds is based on the attraction-to-repulsion forces between atoms. Let’s take the following examples of methane, nitrate, and water as shown in Figure (5-1).

Figure (5): Covalent bond of methane, nitrate, and water

Image23120.tif

An ionic bond is an electrical attraction between two oppositely charged atoms or groups of atoms. All atoms in molecules are trying to have their outer orbit in a stable condition or neutrality, i.e. 8 electrons. In order to gain stability, they will either lose one or more of its outermost electrons thus becoming a positive ion (cation) or they will gain one or more electrons thus becoming a negative ion (anion). Therefore, atoms of negative charges attract with those of positive charges. That electrical attraction between two oppositely charged ions is referred to as an ionic bond. Most salts are ionic. Any metal will combine chemically with any non-metal to form ionic bonds that hold the molecule together.

Let’s see the ionic bond in the reaction of sodium with chlorine.

Chlorine (on the right) pulls one valence electron from sodium atom, Figure (6-1) below.

Figure (6): Ionic bond of sodium chloride

Image23127.tif

The outcome is the table salt (sodium chloride) as below:

Note that the valance in the chlorine is 7 (high negative), and the valance in the sodium is 1 (low negative), therefore, the chlorine pulls the one electron from sodium.

1-4 Valence-Shell Electron-Pair Repulsion Theory (VSEPR)

The electron density distribution for a molecule is best illustrated by means of a contour map. The contour map

of the charge distribution for the lowest or most stable state of the hydrogen molecule is show in Figure (7-1) which shows a cross section of one molecule of the hydrogen, http://www.chemistry.mcmaster.ca/esam/Chapter.

Figure (7): Charge distribution of hydrogen molecule.

Image23134.tif

Another example of helium molecule is shown in Figure (8-1).

Figure (8): Repulsion between the two atoms of the helium molecular.

Image23141.tif

The VSEPR theory assumes that each atom in a molecule will achieve a geometry that minimizes the repulsion between electrons in the valence shell of that atom.

The Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) theory allows us to predict the 3-dimensional shape of molecules from knowledge of their Lewis Dot structure (it will be explained). In VSEPR theory, the position of bound pairs and lone pairs are described relative to the central of the atom. Once the bound and lone pair electrons are positioned, the resulting geometrical (physical) shape presented by the atoms is only used to describe the molecule.

1-5 Lewis structures of atoms

The chemical symbol for the atom is surrounded by a number of dots corresponding to the number of valence electrons. Lewis Structures for ions of elements are shown in Table (1-1).

Table (1-1): lewis structure for ions

Image23148.tif

1-2 Lewis ionic structures of atoms

Image23155.tif

Let us take the molecule of beryllium chloride, BeCl2. The electronegativity difference between beryllium and chlorine isn’t enough to allow the formation of ions as there are 4 electrons forming 2 pairs balancing each other.

Beryllium has 2 outer electrons because it is in group 2. It forms bonds to two chlorines, each of which adds another electron to the outer level of the beryllium..

The two bonding pairs arrange themselves at 180° to each other, because it’s as far apart as they can get. The molecule is described as being linear as shown in Figure (9).

Figure (9): Linear bond

Image23162.tif

Before we proceed in different type of molecule bonding, we should always remember that:

67450.png

Figure (11) below shows physical shapes of some molecules:

Image23230.tif

Figure (12) shows configuration of Lewis dot diagram of covalent and ionic molecules.

Image23237.tif

1-7 Components of the cellular life

1-7-1 Water

- Comprises 60 - 90% of most living organisms (and cells).

- Important because it serves as an excellent solvent and involves into most metabolic reactions.

1-7-2 Carbohydrates

As the name implies, a carbohydrate is a molecule whose molecular formula can be expressed in terms of just carbon, oxygen and hydrogen and takes the formula of CxHyOz. If one hydrogen atom is lost

the sugar becomes an aldehyde (in case of glucose) and is termed an aldose, or it is a ketone (in case