The Purusha Suktam: An A-Religious Inquiry into a Sacred Text

By Dr. Victor Borde

The interpretation of the Vedic text has been a prerogative of the Hindu Brahmins, it has always been interpreted from the religious point of view. This book’s approach is from the socio-historical perspective. It is a subaltern reading of the Vedic text, which not only establishes the fact that Purua-sktam is an interpolation but also unveils the reasons for its interpolation.
The authors approach is both emic and etic at the same time; a perspective which bringing out unique insights. He has used a diachronic approach to trace the history of interpretation thus revealing the various layers of interpretations of this text. Beginning with contemporary interpretations, he goes down in history pointing out how the orthodox and classical scholars interpreted this text and going further back in time to unravel its origin and usage in the context of yajnas and nature religion.

• Language: English
• Publisher: LifeRich Publishing
• Release date: Mar 25, 2021
• ISBN: 9781489732446

Dr. Victor Borde

Victor Borde teaches Psychology and Indology at R. M. College, Bangalore India. He has double master’s degrees in philosophy from the University of Pune and JDV, Pune. He has been active participant in the inter-religious dialogues between Christian, Hindus and Muslims both in India and Canada. Victor has used his knowledge and experience to bring about this distinctive and etic perspective as against the vast number of emic and religious interpretations of this Rigvedic text. For which he has also been conferred with Doctorate in Philosophy.

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ISBN: 978-1-4897-3243-9 (sc)

ISBN: 978-1-4897-3242-2 (hc)

ISBN: 978-1-4897-3244-6 (e)

Library of Congress Control Number: 2020924326

LifeRich Publishing rev. date: 03/25/2021

In

Loving Memory of my Grandmother

Late Mrs. Martha Borde

& to my Friends

Mr. & Mrs. Lawrence Stalin

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I know the great Purusha

brilliant and shining like the Sun, who transcends all forms

of darkness only by knowing Him does one overcome death,

there is no other way we can be free from fear and suffering.

Vajasaneyi Samhita 31.18

CONTENTS

Foreword

Acknowledgements

Preface

Introduction

Chapter 1   The Sociocultural and Religious Context of Puruṣa-sūkta

Chapter 2   The Literary and Exegetical Context of the Puruṣa-sūkta

Chapter 3   Puruṣa-sūkta: Exegesis

Chapter 4   Significance of A-Religious Interpretation Puruṣa-sūkta and General Conclusions

The Various Concepts of Puruṣa in the World Traditions

About Cover Design

Abbriviations

Appendix

Glossary

Bibliography

FOREWORD

Written in an archaic language, with all its difficulties of interpretation in modern languages and in the modern context, and the multiple meanings or interpretations possible for the various words found therein, Puruṣa-sūkta lends itself well to express the famous dictum, ‘unity in diversity.’ Modern scholarship is both critical and appreciative of the Puruṣa-sūkta that has been used extensively, down through the ages, during the worship of Viṣṇu or Nārāyaṇa in temples, during the installation and fire ceremonies, and in fact, also during the daily recitation of Sanskrit literature or even for one’s own meditation. Its widespread repute in worship has also resulted in many commentaries and studies done on it over a long period of time – authors include Spiritual Leaders, Indologists, Exegetes, and Academics – both in the East and in the West.

The concern of some scholars is more academic than spiritual or religious. Years have been spent by many authors, studying Sanskrit, in order to delve into the research and reading the text and commentaries on the Puruṣa-sūkta from various periods in history, the consequent result being a large quantity of written material. This should make research on this subject promising. Nevertheless, there are so many schools of thought, partisan objectives, layers of history, inaccurate translations (sometimes lop-sided) into modern languages that a researcher in this field often finds himself/herself in front of a block as regards arriving at a conclusion. This is not an easily surmountable hurdle. At the outset, I would thus want to acknowledge the difficulty involved in any form of research done on a text such as the Puruṣa-sūkta.

What makes the present work significantly commendable is the fact that there is no work of synthesis done in this field. Various authors have commented on Puruṣa-sūkta in various periods of time ever since it has been written, but a work of synthesis that takes into consideration all these commentaries, interpretations, points of views of different schools, from different periods in history had not yet been taken up. Victor Borde has done a herculean task in this regard. I can testify to the fact that it is not easy to insert a research work, such as this, into an already busy schedule like that of Victor Borde. For the kind of research that the author had taken up, certain constancy and continuousness of research had to be ensured in order to guarantee consistency in the flow of thought and a consequently valid result. The present work proves that the author has been capable of it all.

In the author’s own words, "this study opens up the ‘etic’ perspective or the outsider’s perspective. It is an attempt to arrive at the root-meaning of the Puruṣa-sūkta text. Many scholars, relying on the exegetical outcome, analysis and examination of the terms used in the text from a historicocritical point of view, and from the point of view of the morphology of the terms, suggest that Puruṣa-sūkta does not seem to be part of the original composition of the Ṛgveda, but it seems to be a later interpolation. The author wishes to examine the text of the Puruṣa-sūkta to make an attempt at discovering the rationale behind its interpolation into the Ṛgveda. An honest conclusion can be recognized in the sincerity of the following words: it is not clear as to why this hymn was interpolated. The Western scholars do not give the reason for its interpolation while the Indian scholars do not ask this question."

The third chapter stands out as the most important part of this work. It is more than evident that much research has gone into it. Care has been taken to make sure that the reader has a panoramic view of the interpretations of the various mantras, spread over space and time. Each mantra has been dealt with exegetically, and the commentaries for each mantra are taken from various periods, various schools of thought and from scholarly works produced all over the world (without prejudice to the fact that these interpretations have also caused division in society at times: such as the classical and modern interpretations and the conflict between them).

The liturgical gesture accompanying each mantra is described with precision. In doing this the author has accomplished a colossal task, producing and extraordinary piece of research. It will certainly serve as a compendium for subsequent systematic research as regards the Puruṣa-sūkta text. The author hopes that the discoveries made in this study can help us trace the origin and transition from the Vedic religion to modern Hinduism. His ‘etic’ perspective helps him to look at the text from the point of view of its historical evolution as well as its religious significance – of course, with the help of textual evidence. It is here in the third chapter, above all, that the concept of unity in diversity in the Puruṣa-sūkta text emerges strongly, especially in the dealing with the mantras nine, eleven, twelve, and thirteen, which were meant to facilitate social harmony in a society that is diversified and served by various functions done by men. These functions were considered a calling more than an identity.

The third chapter is preceded by two introductory chapters that define the context in which the Puruṣa-sūkta text was put into writing – the first chapter being the socio-cultural and religious context and the second chapter being the literary and exegetical context.

The first chapter endeavors to investigate a subject that is much in debate today and has produced not few controversies. These controversial themes that are dealt with in this chapter include the Aryan Invasion Theory (AIT), Aryan Migration Theory (AMT) and Out of India Theory (OIT). The high point of this chapter is the question: Who were the Aryans? Taking cues from Vedic texts, the social structure in this archaic period, with all its diversities, tensions, and conflicts, is very well described. In the same manner, the various religious standpoints, the differences in the various forms of worship, and the differences in the object of worship are alluded to with not little textual evidence for what is being held. The origins of rituals (their form and content) are discussed according to their provenance in the various social/religious groups then existing. A quick look at some deities gives the reader a glimpse of the Vedic religion and how the non-Vedic deities were interposed into the Vedic pantheon. A lot of etymological research has gone into this expansive yet reliable view of the religious practices and beliefs. At the same time, the first chapter provides an overview of the cultural differences in the heterogeneous Indian society of the Vedic times, highlighting the phenomena of acculturation, merger, and exchange of religious practices through inter-cultural marriages.

The second chapter, while offering an outline of the literary and exegetical context of the Puruṣa-sūkta, also affords a synthesis of the development from Vedic religion to present-day religiosity, highlighting at the same time the four phases of the development: Ritualistic Brāhmaṇism, Philosophical Brāhmaṇism Mythological Brāhmaṇism and Nominalist Brāhmaṇism. Three factors of the problem of interpretation are identified: The archaic language of the Vedas, the use of figurative language and the wide gap between ideas from the different stages of Vedic history. The appreciation of and the respect for the various schools of thought, as regards the interpretation of the Vedic texts, has played an important role in preserving an objective outlook throughout the present work. Nonetheless, the centrality of the divine inspiration behind the text allows the present author to identify the importance of the rational school of thought without overlooking their despair when the text does not yield to modern logic. Similarly, the risks of an over religious interpretation are also identified, wherein the Vedic text on one hand can lose its original spiritual value to churn out a politically biased interpretation.

In the fourth chapter the author’s standpoint transpires as that of the Aryan Invasion Theory (not that he favors the Aryans). Nevertheless, the author continues to maintain his neutral position, and at the same time wants to offer his suggestions for a unified society that is not based on creating divisions, exclusions, and discrimination. He proposes the inclusive path, the one contained in the Bhagavadgītā (BG), which presents Hindu religion as inclusive religion. Moreover, his conclusions are based on the exegesis of the Puruṣa-sūkta text, which according to him point to the fact that during the Ṛgvedic times the caste system did not exist since the hymn Puruṣa-sūkta was meant to build an inclusive social structure out of the various groups that existed in the society, furthermore, there was social mobility in the Indian society back then. Thus, in the author’s own words, If the inclusive interpretation of the Puruṣa-sūkta is accepted, it will enable Hindu society to be culturally inclusive and establish a peaceful and harmonious society by removing caste hierarchy and social isolation. His theory of the superimposition of the deities of the original inhabitants of India as also the theory that the epics and Purāṇas were used to popularize the stories of the Aryan gods among the aboriginal masses, may not go down well with many. The fourth chapter seems to give voice to a non-Vedic, subaltern perspective in the understanding of the Vedas, their interpretations, and the historical criticism. It is a rejection of the hierarchy of importance in the society.

This work of synthesis appears to be just the beginning of a new field of research and method of research if not the foundation for an alternative way of looking at the various schools of interpretation of Vedic texts down through the ages.

Dr. Nathaniel Cruz

Dean of Studies,

RM College, Bengaluru

I feel immensely happy at seeing the doctoral work of Victor Borde ready for publication. My hearty congratulations to the author for all his passion, perseverance, and patience in bringing to completion a significant work in Indology in general and Vedic Studies in particular. It was a joy and satisfaction to accompany the candidate as a guide during his intellectual pursuit.

Victor chose a difficult area and a tough topic for his research. It was not easy to find and manage the resources. Amidst a plethora of interpretations, he had to struggle to find a balanced and nuanced view. Victor has accomplished the task in a commendable manner. What began as a Master’s Thesis, has culminated as a doctoral research.

The thesis shows enough indication of many skills Victor acquired during his studies: Ability to articulate the research question, meticulous execution of the research methodology specially dealing with the various interpretations, searching, mastering, intelligibly using the resources, and carefully using the apt transliteration. He has also shown enough ability to compare, contrast various positions critically.

I appreciate the author for highlighting the hermeneutics of inclusion in the Puruṣa-sūkta. He has bridged the living world of emancipatory concerns with the scriptural world which is the need of the hour. I wish Victor Borde all the best in his intellectual ventures. May he author many more works.

Śivās te panthānaḥ santu.

Dr. Henry D’Almeida, SJ

Department of Indian Studies

Jnanadeepa Vidyapeeth, Pune

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Gratitude to the eternally faithful God who

enabled me to complete this work!

There are many wonderful people I would like to thank for accompanying and helping me in my research and publication of this book and to the countless people who have remembered me in their prayers. My special thanks to -

• JDV Professors & Staff for being with me in my research and offering invaluable insights

o My deepest gratitude to my MPh and Doctoral guide, Dr. Henry D’Almeida SJ for his able guidance and encouragement to pursue this study against all odds.

o Readers Dr. Jojo Parecattil CMI and Dr. Lazar Gnanapragasam SVD for their appreciation and critic.

○ Dr. Soosaimanikam Francis and Dr. Kuruvilla Pandikattu SJ for going out of their way to make all the arrangements for my Doctoral Defense.

• The Diocese of Pune

o Rt. Rev. Thomas Dabre, Bishop of Pune.

o Late Rt. Rev. Valerian D’Souza, Bishop of Pune.

o Fr. Malcolm Sequeira, Vicar General, Diocese of Pune.

○ Fr. William Fernandes and Fr. George D’Souza for their support.

• My parents, Late Mr. & Mrs. Philip & Margret Borde, my grandmother Late Mrs. Martha Michael Borde who thought me to be deeply rooted in my faith and at the same time to respect people from other faiths. She molded me, to be the person I am today. My siblings and their families.

o Mr. & Mrs. Samson & Ranjana Borde, Salina and Ravina.

o Mr. & Mrs. Lawrence & Prabha Borde, Noel and Shirly.

○ Mr. & Mrs. Marshall & Helena Borde, Kevin and Neil.

• Manuscript Work

o Ms. Nimmy P. Cherian and Mrs. Dipti Desai who assisted with manuscript proofreading.

o Ms. Ines Miranda and Ms. Sunitha Pereira with content editing.

○ For my fellow students who offered useful comments and guided the manuscript to the form in which it is before you now - Fr. Ryan Rodrigues SJ, Fr. Raju Crasta, Sr. Punam Roi SJC, Fr. Andrew Francis Ofm Cap, Fr. Varan Vardhan, Fr. Santosh Salve MSFS.

• My classmate and dear friend, Fr. Saji Kalapurackal MCBS, who accompanied me in this journey with every provision and assistance required and worked alongside in helping me finish this work.

• Heartfelt thanks to Mr. Frank Parent for his support in the publication of this book.

• Friends who accompanied me in this journey.

o Mr. & Mrs. Ralph Menon, Mrs. Sarita Menezes, Ms. Irene Carvalho, Mr. & Mrs. Ivan Heather.

o Fr. Leonardo Di Mauro, Fr. Brain Fernandez, Fr. Nathaniel Cruz, Fr. Johns Varghese, Fr. Zacharias Mattam SDB, Fr. Babu Kalathil, Ms. Celine Fernandez, Mr. & Mrs. Sabby Fernandes, Mr. & Mrs. Eric D’Souza, Late Mr. Jovit Monteiro & Mrs. Amelia Monteiro, Mr. & Mrs. Harold Yemmi, the communities belonging to the Diocese of Pune, India and the Diocese of Whitehorse, Canada.

PREFACE

I am an Indian, born and brought up in Pune, Maharashtra. I grew up accepting the subtle reality of caste discrimination as it became a part of social life. This sordid reality invariably molds the psyche of any Indian and determines the way they relate with others. I grew up with many questions, as I was taught that God created everyone equally in his likeness and image while what I was witnessing around me was contrary to it.

Within the caste system it is not only the higher caste oppressing the lower caste, but there also exists within each of the four major castes, a hierarchy of sub-castes one dominating the other, each either justifying the discriminatory system or altogether in denial of its existence. What was agonizing and an enigma for me, is that the people willingly embrace and even defend the discriminating caste system as they believe that it is a divine directive and holding on that belief and practicing it is a means which will lead them to salvation.

The unanswered questions made me thirst to find the answers as to why people don’t oppose discrimination. I became aware that the caste system was opposed and rejected throughout history and opposed by men like Buddha, Guru Nanak, Mahatma Gandhi, Mahatma Jyotiba Phule, Dr. B. R. Ambedkar and other leaders. However, neither their leadership nor influence on people did they succeed in getting rid of this discriminatory social system. I was deeply hurt to learn about the historic public burning of the Manusmṛti by Dr. B. R. Ambedkar. I could not comprehend how anyone can be insensitive to someone’s sacred texts.

Later I learnt that the Manusmṛti cannot be blamed for the caste system, as it only reiterates the teaching of a much older text, which is revered by the Hindus, namely Ṛgveda. Majority of the Indians are in agreement with the constitutional ban on the caste system, but it has not been possible to eradicate it, as the psyche of the Indian society is formed on the bases of religious teachings and they are unable to abolish what is prescribed in the Vedas. It is easy for the Hindus to accept an atheist but not a person who disregards the Vedas. Millions of fellow-Indians have no answer or solution to the social problem, inflicted by the caste system.

As I pursued my studies in Philosophy, I had to write a dissertation to complete my master’s degree, this was my opportunity to explore the un-answered questions about caste system, with that intention I chose Puruṣa-sūkta. My distinction in this subject opened an entirely new journey, which also created in me the desire to learn Sanskrit after, at the age forty. The rich ancient language made me more restless, as I discovered truths. I learnt that almost all scholars agreed that this hymn was of later origin and interpolated into Ṛgveda, which may have been manipulated or appropriated to the advantage of the society at that time.

As I studied Puruṣa-sūkta, I found almost all the scholars agreeing that it is an interpolation, but no one questioned nor answered as to – What was the reason for this interpolation? Can the Ṛgvedic text be interpreted without the religious frills, as it was originally supposed to be? As this was not within the scope of the master’s degree, I had to leave those questions unanswered and the outcome of my Doctoral research on the hymn Puruṣa-sūkta is this book an a-religious inquiry of the sacred text.

Through this research I discovered that this hymn is a very rich text. The interpreters are not to be blamed because the text was interpreted in the context of the Vedic society. The interpretation continues to remain the same, but it is the context that has changed and is outdated for the present social reality. Viewing this text from religious lenses of one’s own understanding has manipulated certain sections of the society, causing division and hatred. The original text can help in uniting India’s multi-religious and multi-cultural society.

Swami Chinmayananda has pointed out that at the time of the Mahābhārata, the Vedic religion was in a state of dilapidation.¹ It received powerful rejuvenation from the hands of the Vyasa. Similarly, today India’s social structure is dilapidated due to its caste discrimination. A powerful rejuvenation of the Indian society is possible through the re-interpretation of the Puruṣa-sūkta text. Viewing and interpreting the ancient and sacred Vedic text through an a-religious perspective can make this text relevant for our times and can be of help to create a harmonious society rather than animosity and division, which the religious interpretation of this hymn has created. This can be objectionable to certain Hindus, but like any branch of scientific knowledge is a-religious in nature; similarly, this inquiry is a-religious in nature and not anti-religious. It is an attempt to open up the sacred Vedic knowledge to the world at large, and not contain it in the religious straitjacket. A perspective which opens the Ṛgvedic texts not only for the Hindus, but to the whole world, regardless of religion.

The present investigation is a combined emic-etic perspective. This may sound contradictory but as far as my philosophical training and personal religious beliefs are concerned, it is etic in nature and may appear as anti-Hindu due to the controversies in Vedic studies. While Western scholars, studying Indian texts are often criticized and branded as Hindu phobic for their lack of knowledge of the Indian society and culture. My approach is emic in nature as I am an Indian, raised in Indian culture and society which I deeply appreciate and love.

The journey of exploring Puruṣa-sūkta was a journey of personal dismemberment and at the same time foregathering of myself. As I complete and publish my research the words of Jean-Paul Sartre come alive to me In fashioning myself, I fashion man.

INTRODUCTION

The hymn Puruṣa-sūkta (PS) is the most celebrated hymn in the Hindu tradition. The various schools of Hinduism have their own set of five hymns (pañcasūkta) depicting the theology and philosophy of that school. PS is common to most of these sets of pañcasūkta as it is said to contain the essence of the Vedas.² Recitation of the PS is recommended in several texts for various reasons. In case of a married man, it is recommended that he recite this hymn for the purpose of getting a son.³ In the case of infertile women, pregnancy is promised in thirty days for the one who recites the PS and observes the prescribed ritual. Similarly, its recitation is prescribed for expiation of sins committed secretly, even the sin of violating one’s teacher’s bed or that of killing a dvijā. It is believed that a grave sin of incest, or with a woman of the same gótrá, or a widow, are forgiven and the sinner becomes pure immediately upon reciting the PS thrice. According to tradition, through worship or recitation of this hymn the worshiper can attain mokṣa. The pious Hindus recite every day and for all Hindus, the PS is like one solution for all problems.

The PS has every character of modernity in its diction, meter, style, and ideas, which is different from the rest of the prayers with which it is associated. The language is particularly sweet, rhythmical, and polished, which is different in character compared to other hymns; this has led to its being regarded as the product of a later age when the capabilities of the language had been developed. Thus, most Western scholars agree that this hymn was added at a later period into the Ṛgveda (RV).

There are other reasons why this hymn is believed to be an interpolation. The RV is believed to be the oldest of all the Vedas. The other Vedas, which are supposedly of later origin, are mentioned in this hymn. It also mentions the three seasons vasanta, grīṣma, and śarad. The word grīṣma, vasanta, does not occur in any other hymn of the RV other than PS nor in the earliest vocabulary of the Vedic poets. Even though the four castes are mentioned in this hymn, there is no evidence in the RV for an elaborate, much-subdivided and overarching caste system.⁴ It is the only hymn in the entire RV that mentions the four castes (varṇas) and even though the word "varṇa" itself is not mentioned in this hymn, the varṇa system seems to be embryonic in the RV, a social ideal rather than a social reality.⁵ Due to the above mentioned reason most western scholars believe that this hymn is an interpolation. From the perspective of Indian scholars, it is not only the PS that is interpolated but the whole of the 1st and the 10th maṇḍala of the RV, are later additions to the Ṛgvedic corpus. Thus, even though they have different perspectives, both Western and Eastern scholars agree that this hymn is a later interpolation. However, the question why the hymn was interpolated remains unanswered and the question has been ignored by Indian scholars while Western Indologists have tried to answer it vaguely.

David Keane, speaking about caste discrimination, has quoted V. Nagarajan, saying that this hymn was interpolated to give divine sanction to an unequal division in society that was in existence, at the time of its composition.⁶ From the perspective of Indian scholars the question still remains unanswered and gets extended to later books too. Why were the later books, namely, the 1st and the 10th maṇḍalas, added to the RV? Were they added to complete and finalize the Ṛgvedic collection? If so, then the addition of just the 10th maṇḍala would have sufficed to complete it; why was the first maṇḍala also added? Did the compilers of the RV have some other objective for interpolating the PS into the RV? If it was meant to give divine sanction to the caste system, as some scholars point out, why was that a necessity? Was the caste system being introduced into the Indian society or was it failing and needed to be rejuvenated by divine sanction? These are some of the questions this book asks and tries to find answers for.

In addition to the above-mentioned question, the Vedic study today has inconclusive controversies and debates. Even after three centuries of scholarly studies on the Vedas, several questions remain unanswered. The most debated questions are, who were the protagonists of the Vedas? As suggested by some scholars, were they inhabitants of India? Or as is widely believed, did they come from outside India? If they came from outside, where did they come from? There are various theories used to answer these questions; among them are the Aryan Invasion Theory (AIT), the Aryan Migration Theory (AMT), and the Out of India Theory (OIT). Both the AIT and AMT theories claim that the Aryans were foreigners who came to the Indian subcontinent; opposing these theories, the OIT claims that the Aryans were inhabitants of India. None of these theories stand ground on cross examination. The proponents of the OIT namely, Shrikant Talageri, N. S. Rajaram, Rajiv Malhotra, and others, believe that the Western scholars are promoting the AIT for political and ideological gains. The AIT stands discarded for want of sufficient evidence. As the proponents of the OIT discard the AIT along with it they also discard AMT. No reasons are given as to why the AMT cannot be accepted other than saying that it is a softer version of the AIT; as they go on to prove that the protagonists of the Vedas were indigenous people who went out of India. While the proponents of the AMT, namely, Asko Parpola, Michael Witzel, David W. Anthony, and others, insist that the Aryans migrated to the Indian subcontinent.

The debate on The Origin of Vedic Culture is the most animated and inconclusive debate of the century. Sheldon Pollock says that the study of Sanskrit, the language in which the Vedas are written, has been adopted by various people with distinct agendas; the British are accused of using it for external, colonial purposes; the Germans used it to gain internal, political advantage, while the Brahmins benefitted from it as it maintained their own elite dominance in traditional India. Similarly, indigenous Aryanism is also multifaceted. It is adopted by some as a means of opposing the Orientalism of European scholarship, of the Colonial period, and by still others to promote internal Orientalism for gaining political domination.⁷

Each one aggressively promotes their view based on a very meager and biased understanding of the actual data, indicating preconceived ideas that are non-negotiable. As M. K. Dhavalikar puts it, The Aryan problem, the knottiest in human history, is now over two centuries old, and no acceptable solution is in sight despite the best efforts on the part of many renowned scholars.⁸ The academic world stands divided into two camps. One believes that the Aryans came from outside India, this is advocated by both Western and Indian scholars;⁹ while the other camp, mostly Indian and a few Western scholars maintain that the Aryans were indigenous.¹⁰ The unfortunate part of this debate is that pride and prejudice have played a significant role in it, and some scholars from both sides who are expected to put forward their scholarly objections soberly, have not hesitated from indulging in mudslinging. This is the result of Vedic studies done from different perspectives. The AIT and OIT are based on textual and linguistic evidence. Also, even though the AMT is rejected by mostly Indian scholars, it has not yet been refuted. The AMT is supported by textual and linguistic evidence; the latest archaeological reports and genetic evidences also support the AMT.¹¹ Tony Joseph in his book Early Indians has presented the genetic evidences arguing in favor of the AMT, he speaks of not only of one but four migrations the first were the out of Africa migrants, then the Aryan, the West Asians, and the East Asians.¹² Despite the various claims against AMT no one has disproved this theory and thus it continues, to the frustration of the proponents of OIT, to be the most accepted and used theory to perceive ancient Indian history, and culture.

The other controversial issue in Vedic studies is the way Vedic mythical stories are interpreted. Western culture is influenced by Greek mythological stories; Western philosophers sought to explain the cosmos using rational discourse and argumentation. The Greek philosophers from Socrates onwards began to criticize these myths that tried to explain the cosmos and considered them as irrational. Today, it is mostly believed that Greek mythology may be based on some historical facts, but no one believes that the mythical stories were historical events whereas in India, there are people who do believe that the Hindu myths are historical events with a deeper and symbolic meaning, and they interpret these myths to justify their beliefs and practices. As the Vedic tradition is still a living tradition, there are people who believe in Vedic mythical stories and mythical beings are historical. Although this is thwarted by some scholars, most scholars believe that myths are not historical but are based on real historical events. They are figurative explanations of the world or events that could not be rationally understood,¹³ still many Vedic scholars believe that Indian mythical stories are historical. For example, Stephen Knapp observes, "according to the Vedas, there is one Supreme Being and many agents … the devas are not imaginary or mythological beings but are agents of the Supreme will to administer different affairs."¹⁴

The contemporary understanding of myth as defined in Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary is, usually a traditional story of ostensibly historical events that serves to unfold part of the world view of a people or explain a practice, a belief, or a natural phenomenon. Myths are handed on by people trying to explain their practices, origins, and why the world is as it is. Some are poetic, others are irrational, but to their exponents they are all true. A historical and rational understanding of Indian culture, society, and religion can help us to rationally understand Vedic myths in general and the PS in particular. To understand and interpret the PS we must accept myths as a rational explanation that does not deny or contradict religious truths, which are held by the people who believe in them. One must also understand and know the religious beliefs of the people, and who the constituent members of Vedic society were, amidst whom or by whom this hymn was composed and used.

Given the above context, Vedic study is a challenge as one has to take into consideration one of the three, so far inconclusive theories, to start with. To add to the difficulty, the Vedas besides being sacred text for the Hindus it is also believed to be divine revelations. The interpretation of Vedic text depends heavily on the perspective one takes. Scholars are divided into two camps; first, the religious interpreters who argue from the OIT point of view and second, the a-religious or the secular interpreters who argue either from the AIT or AMT perspective. Although both the AIT and AMT have been rejected by proponents of the OIT, the AMT has not yet been refuted or challenged while the latest archaeological and genetic evidence support this theory.¹⁵ This book examines the PS from the perspective of the AMT as this theory is the most widely accepted and unrefuted theory; further, in recent times it has been authenticated by archaeological and genetic studies.

For centuries, to study and interpret the Vedic text, has been the appanage of the Brahmins which almost always has been done from the religious perspective. The traditional outlook perceives the Brahmins to be a superior as compared to all other castes. While members of other castes often blame them for looking down upon the lower castes and interpreting the text to uphold their caste and community status, as is evident by the traditional interpretation of the PS, this text is used to justify the caste system. The traditional religious interpretation, divide the society into castes, does not accord equal dignity and human rights,¹⁶ which the contemporary, secular world acknowledges and strives to uphold.¹⁷ There is conflict between how the Hindus and the secular Indians perceive the Indian constitution as the constitution accords to human dignity and equality to all irrespective of caste, religion or sex. Whereas he caste system is discriminatory. This conflict is expressed in the testimony of Batuprasad Sharma Shastri, the high priest of Varanasi’s Tulsi Manas temple, who in an