Insights into Modern World History: Grade 11 and 12 Student Book

By James Litai

Insights into Modern World History is a material that uses interpretative approach to examine political, social, and economic changes of the twentieth- to twenty-first-century world. A substantially updated approach to 2015 exactly in line with Upper Secondary School Certificate Examination (USSCE) requirements.

This book is perfected purposely for Papua New Guinea schools. A convenient text material for both teachers and students to have access and gain the insights of modern world history.

The National Department of Educations motto is Prosperity through self reliance; thus this project is one out of many the department is yet to accomplish.

Plenty of maps and cartoons are included in each unit. All units are summarized by external exam-type review questions.

The trends in Papua New Guinea history beginning 1526 from the first explorer who sited our island to 1884, formal proclamation by Germany and Britain to 1951, the first twenty-nine-member legislative council. The chronology counts on to 1964, first elections to 1973, self-government to 1975, our independence. As I write, the country is turning forty years now.

This text material is the 2015 latest version. There are four important chapters included and the chapters are (1) Writing a good Essay, (2) The Chronicles: Key Events of the World, (3) The Chronicles: Key Events of Papua New Guinea, and (4) The Glossary. These chapters gives detailed information chronologically.

• Language: English
• Publisher: Xlibris AU
• Release date: May 27, 2016
• ISBN: 9781514440704

James Litai

The author has been a graduate of economics and social science with bachelor’s in education from the Papua New Guinea University of Goroka in 2002. Hails from Sakarip Village in the Wabag District of Enga province. He has been teaching all upper secondary social science courses at Kopen Catholic Secondary School, St. Paul’s–Pausa Lutheran Secondary School, and Sir Tei Abal Secondary School for the last thirteen years in the Enga province. He now resides at Sir Tei Abal Secondary School, survived by his wife, Ronny, and his four children, namely, Archie Litai, Jilla Litai, Leah Litai, and Wallen Litai.

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Copyright © 2016 by James Litai.

Author Credits: Teacher

Wabag, Enga Province

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ISBN:       Softcover       978-1-5144-4069-8

                 eBook           978-1-5144-4070-4

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the copyright owner.

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Rev. date: 03/20/2017

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CONTENTS

Preface

Acknowledgement

UNIT 1

THE START OF THE CENTURY

Chapter 1 Background To War

Chapter 2 Count Down To War

Chapter 3 Causes Of The WW I

Chapter 4 The World War I; 1914-1918

Chapter 5 PNG And World War One

UNIT 2

PART A.

MIDDLE OF THE CENTURY

Chapter 1 The Problems Of Making A Peace Settlement

Chapter 2 The League Of Nations

Chapter 3 The Soviet Union Emerges

Chapter 4 Communist Rule In The USSR

UNIT 2

PART B.

MIDDLE OF THE CENTURY

Chapter 1 International Relations In Between The Two Fires 1919-1939

Chapter 2 The Great Depression

Chapter 3 Japan

Chapter 4 China Since 1900 – 49

Chapter 5 Totalitarian Italy

Chapter 6 Totalitarian Germany

Chapter 7 Series of Successes

Chapter 8 Munich to the out break of War: September 1938 to September 1939

UNIT 2

PART C

MIDDLE OF THE CENTURY

Chapter 1 Summary of Events

Chapter 2 The Axis offensive widens: 1941 to summer 1942

Chapter 3 The Axis offensives held in Check: Summer 1942 to summer 1943

Chapter 4 The Axis Powers Defeated; July 1943 to August 1945.

Chapter 5 Effects of WWII on PNG

UNIT 3

PART A.

THE END OF THE CENTURY

Chapter 1 The End Of The European Empires And After

Chapter 2 The End Of The French Empire

Chapter 3 Holland, Belgium, Spain Portugal And Italy

Chapter 4 South Africa

UNIT 3

PART B.

THE END OF THE CENTURY

Chapter 1 Post WWII Era

Chapter 2 The Cold War In Asia

Chapter 3 The Cold War In Europe

Chapter 4 Superpower Relations, 1953-1980

Chapter 5 Collapse Of Communism

UNIT 3

PART C.

THE UNITED NATIONS ORGANIZATION

UNIT 3

PART D.

NATIONALISM IN THE MIDDLE EAST

9UNIT 3

PART E.

PAPUA NEW GUINEA AS A NATION

10CHRONOLOGY AND EVENTS

THE WORLD

11CHRONOLOGY AND EVENTS

PAPUA NEW GUINEA

GLOSSARY of Historical terms

Reference

Preface

This book; Insights Into Modern World History, is a material that uses an interpretative approach to examine important political, social and economic changes of the 20th to 21st century world. It is a substantially updated approach to 2015, in line with Upper Secondary School Certificate Examination (USSCE) requirements. The national education department’s motto for this year is ‘prosperity through self reliance’, thus this project is one out of many the department is yet to accomplice.

All units and chapters are aligned exactly in line with Gr.11 and 12 History syllabus. Current trends in Papua New Guinea history are all included in this book.

All chapters are summarized by external exam type review questions at the end. Students and teachers must complete the review questions before moving onto the next chapter.

I have also written two more books together with this book. Two are being published; one being this book and the other is the book titled "Introduction to Our Laws which will serve as upper secondary text material for Legal Studies. The third manuscript titled Modern World History- Chronicles and Glossary," is yet to be published.

There is no recommended text for upper secondary syllabus on all subjects in Papua New Guinea. Newly elevated secondary schools in the country are facing reference material problem. I personally took the initiative to collect scraps from here and there and came up with this book,

I have come across a lot of errors in the books that I’ve researched, especially grammatical errors. If I happen to create a kind of error in this book, I am solely responsible.

Hope you enjoy reading history, eh!

au.tif

James Litai

B. Ed Economics/ History

Acknowledgement

To Grand Chief Sir Peter Ipatas, the action governor for Enga Province, the father of free education, you started your career beginning 1997. You have done great things for the province. You tremendously improved the lives of the people in your province. I am one of the beneficiaries; I wouldn’t have published these books without your quality input.

To Was Rowatina, the Director – Enga Provincial Education Services, I owe you too much for making available financial assistance for publishing of the books.

Dr. Samson Amean, the Enga Provincial Administrator, you were literally impressed by the publication of these curriculum materials. You have thrown your full support behind curriculum development and you deserved to be mentioned for credit.

This book is a brainchild of the principal of Wabag Secondary School, Mrs. Kisam Tare, when in 2006 advised me; Such young person like you can write books from then on I started my manuscripts on the History text material.

My own family needs a very special mention here as well because they always appreciate my work. To my children, Archie, Jiah, Leah and Wallen Litai, they are in elementary and lower primary schools when I completed the writing. Hope they will read this material in the future. To their step mother Ronny Litai, she has been too patient and respectful when I sit in front of my computer to get this material completed.

Special thanks to Rob Mercado of Xlibris publishing for extension of the 50% discount promotions and to Joy Daniels for walking me through the process of publishing.

1. Writing Essays

Introduction

Both written and spoken English is a problem to most students of Papua New Guinea. Students face a lot of difficulties when they try to explain, describe or analyze a situation especially in written English. Students of history must know that history is to do with a lot of reading and writing. Students are encouraged by this book to read and write a lot to improve the quality of both written and spoken English. In this unit you will look at:

• writing essays

• acknowledging sources

• terms used in history

What is an Essay?

In history, an essay is a written presentation of ideas supported by facts. Essays can vary in length, and can be of different types and have different purposes. Essays are written to answer a set of questions and they should therefore include information only about what is asked.

• Essays can describe a situation in history; for example; an essay can be written to explain what happened or what existed.

• Essays can analyze a situation: for example, an essay can be used to explain why an event occurred.

• Essays can persuade a reader to accept one particular view; for example, essays can be used to make judgments about governments, people and events.

Why write Essays?

Developing essay-writing skills is one of the great advantages of studying history.

• Essays require understanding. There is no way you can explain an event clearly if you don’t understand it properly.

• Essays make you select the facts that are important to the question.

• Essays require analysis.

The skills of essay writing can be used in many ways: to present information in other subjects, to prepare reports for an employer, or to argue your point of view at a meeting or with you friends.

Taking notes

Before you write an essay you will need to go to a number of sources for information. Where ever you take information from a book, write down the title of the book and publication details. Put the page number of the book beside your notes, since you may need to refer to this page later. Enter quotes in your notes in a clear way; either by writing them on separate lines or by underlining and always put the page number beside them.

Skills for writing essays

It is important to develop a method for writing essays. One method is:

• Work out exactly what is required

• Know what to avoid.

• Develop a plan and structure.

• If writing an assignment, know how to acknowledge quotes and write a bibliography.

Understanding what is required

• Make sure you understand exactly what is being asked. Read the question two or three times, and underline key words. If the question asks more than one thing, number the tasks so that you make sure you do everything asked.

• Recognize common words in essay questions and know what they mean;

Know what to avoid

If you know what to avoid, you can improve the quality of your essay. Here is a list of nevers.

• Never try to write everything you now on a topic. You need to select only relevant details.

• Never put headings on paragraphs. Essays are written as a whole.

• Never use abbreviations such as govt.

• Never number points.

• Never use phrases ‘such as,’ etc., ‘so on,’ and ‘such thing.’ These are far too vague.

• Never use questions such as, ‘Why did Australia do this?’ ‘How did the people react?’

• Never use numbered explanations such as ‘there are five background factors to World War 1,’ Rather, write: World War 1 occurred for many reasons…..

• Never use firstly, thirdly, especially if you have a long list of reasons. You’ll be in trouble by the present tense always, use the past tense.

• Never use you or I

• Never copy out passages from books without acknowledging them.

Planning and structure

When you have clearly understood what the essay requires, you have to plan your essay.

The introduction

Spend time drafting a good introduction. In the introduction, mention time and place. For example you have to write an essay on the following topic:

Why was Hitler able to come to power? In your introduction you can set out time and place by starting off:

‘Hitler became the absolute dictator of Germany in 1934.’

Then you must make clear to your reader what your essay will contain. This can be seen in the following example;

Hitler became the absolute dictator of Germany in 1934. He gained the support of the German people by taking advantage of problems faced by Germany between 1918 and 1933 and by drawing on Germany tradition to form the basic ideas of his Nazi Party. Hitler had great organizing ability and also used violence to frighten opponents.

This introduction performs two tasks:

1. It locates the subject in time and place.

2. It shows that the body of the essay will look at

▶ Germany 1918-1933

▶ Germany traditions used by Hitler

▶ Hitler’s organization and method.

Introductions do not need to be long, four to seven handwritten lines are usually sufficient.

The body

Once you have worked out your introduction, you then have to select the details to support your ideas. Arrange the details into a logical order. Then work out a paragraph structure. Paragraphs contain one idea or a group of related ideas. Write out a plan with paragraphs shown.

Sample Plan

Introduction

Para. 1. Opposition to Weimar Republic

▶ anti-government feel

▶ desire for strong leader

▶ Treaty of Versailles

Para. 2 Economic problems

▶ inflation

▶ depression

Para. 3 Ideas in Germany

▶ nationalism

▶ militarism

▶ hatred of Jews

Para.4 Hitler’s own appeal

▶ propaganda

▶ appeal to most social groups-aristocrats, industrialist, middle class, farmers, workers and women

Para 5. Hitler gains power

▶ 1932 elections

▶ use of violence

▶ 1933 elections

▶ Enabling Act

Conclusion

The usual way to conclude an essay is to summarize the main argument. For example; He had come to power by using the problems faced by the German government, his appeal to the people of Germany and the effective use of propaganda and terror tactics.

Tips

1. For most students it is easier to write chronologically; that is, in the order in which events happened.

2. Many students find writing within time limit difficult. The only cure is practice. Practice writing at home so that you can write quickly and neatly.Quoting and acknowledging

When writing assignment essays, students often quote from books they have used. You should know when and how to quote.

Quoting

When?

Quotes should be used to support a point when something explains a major point very clearly. Quotes should never be long – usually not more than four or five lines.

How?

Acknowledging

All quotes have to be acknowledged. There are different methods of doing this. Here is a common method;

1. Place the number 1 at the end of your first quote, 2 at the end of the second, 3 at the end of the third,and so on.

2. At the end of the essay, put a heading Acknowledgments. Under this, you must list your quote as they occur in your essay. Beside the number of your quote, you put the details of the quoted passage can be found. Set your acknowledgment out in this order: author, date of Publication, title, publisher, place of publication, and page number.

Example

C.M.H Clark, (1970),A Short history of Australia (Richmond: Melbourne university Press. p.27.

Dabuek Roselle,(1976), A World history (Aylesbury: Ginn & Co.,Melbourne, Australia p.41.

David Thompson,(1983),Europe since napoleon (Harmondsworth; penguin, p41.

You may quote from the same book more than once. There are two methods in dealing with this

1. CMH Clark (1970), A Short History Of Australi, Richmond Melbourne University Press

2. ibidp.32

If it is a short quote and part of a sentence it can be done in the following way:

Hitler said in parliament, I am responsible for the fate of the German people. I became the Supreme judge of Germany.

If the quote is a large quote taken from a history book, you should write it on a line, separate from the rest of the essay, and indent the entire quote.

Daniel Roselle, (1976) A World history (Aylesbury: Ginn & Co.,), p.66.

Clark, op.cit.,p.32.

Bibliographies

At the end of your assignment you are required to write a bibliography. The bibliography is the list of books you have used, organized in alphabetical order according to authors, surnames, the date of publication, the title of the book, the company who published the book, the city in which this book was published and the name of the country shall come last.

Example

Conti, F. (1978) Shrines of Power. Cassell, Layrutzen, London, United Kingdom

Osborne, Charles.(1977) Wagner and his World. London: Thames and Hudson, London. United Kingdom.

Pete, Venice. (1978) London Weidenfeld and Nicholson, Melbourne, Australia

The salient example on how to write a bibliography is given at the back of this book. These books are the sources of the information I have collected to write this book. You are not allowed to copy some else’ idea as if it is your own. All products are protected by international copyright laws. It is a crime and an expellable offence at the Universities if you do not acknowledge the source of information in your write - up. Always acknowledge the source in your bibliography.

Reading history

When you read history you often come across terms you need to understand. Below are some of the main terms commonly used in history.

Class

The term class refers to groups at different levels of society. When the feudal system became established in Europe during the Middle Ages, the aristocracy held the power and top social position. The peasants and town workers, who did the manual work, had little power. Thus aristocracy became known as the upper class and the peasants and town workers were called the lower class. When the merchants, bankers and professionals emerged as a group, they became known as the middle class because they were considered lower than the aristocracy but higher than the manual workers.

Today, the division between classes is blurred and many people reject the idea of class division in society. The word class can be used to name other groups in society; for example, the military class, the ruling class, and the intellectual class.

Political terms

Nation

The term nation refers to the territory, the people and the social, economic and political systems of country.

State

The state used in three ways:

▶ as a section of a nation, as in the state of New South Wales

▶ as a small, independent country; for example before Germany became a nation, it consisted of many ‘states’, which were ruled independently.

▶ To describe a nation in a particular way for example,

a "one party state" refers to a nation that allows one political party,

a "militaristic state" refers to a nation where the armed forces rule the country,

a "totalitarian state" refer to a nation where the government has total control,

Empire

A political empire consists of original territory plus other territory gained. Historically, empires have taken three main forms:

▶ Personal empires - where one person conquers large areas of land. Alexander the Great formed a massive personal empire.

▶ An empire of a city-state- The city state of Rome expanded to form one of the largest empires in history.

▶ An empire of a nation - Nations often claim territory outside their own borders. The outstanding example of this form of empire was the British Empire. In 1914, Britain ruled about one quarter of the populated land of the world. Imperial is the adjective from empire. It can be used to refer to things concerning the empire, for example; ‘imperial rule’ ‘imperial navy.’ It can also be used to refer to things concerning the head of an empire, the emperor or empress, for example ‘the imperial court.’

Monarchy

This term is used for a nation with a royal, hereditary head of state.

Absolute monarchy

This term is used for a nation where the royal head of state has complete power.

Constitutional monarchy

This term describes a nation whose head of state is a monarch but ruled by the parliament

Republic

This term describes a country that has no hereditary head of state. Instead the head of state is elected.

Parliamentary Democracy

This term describes a nation that governed by a parliament elected by the people. Government is ‘representative,’ that is, people elect parliamentarians to represent them. In a parliamentary democracy, there is more than one political party.

Royal titles

Royalty

This term refers to royal families

King/queen

The royal ruler of a nation; the head of state of a monarchy

Sovereign

King or Queen

Monarch

King or Queen

Emperor/empress

The head of an Empire. The title emperor is often written in the language of the nation referred to; for example, the emperor of Germany was called the Kaiser, the emperor of Japan was called the Mikado, and the emperor of Russia was called the Tsar.

Prince/princess

The terms prince; and princess can be used in a number of ways:

▶ They ca n refer to a member of a royal family. For example, younger brothers of monarchs are known as ‘princes’ for the sisters of monarchs are know as ‘princesses’. The children of ruling monarchs are princes and princesses. The male heir to a throne is known as the Crown Prince.

▶ Princes can also be hereditary heads of state of small, independent countries known as principalities, for example Prince Rainier of Monaco.

Duke

The term duke can be used as a royal title:

▶ It can be given to a relation of the king or queen. In Austria, meaning the most important duke of the land.

▶ It can be the title of the head of small, independent state. Such a state is known as a Duchy.

Titles of the nobility

Titles came into being in the feudal times to indicate high rank. Britain still retains a system for titles; Duke/duchess, marquis/marchioness, earl/countess, viscount/viscountess,baron/baroness

These titles all follow the male line and entitle the male holders to sit in the British House of Lords.

Baronets and knights

The holders of these titles are known as ‘Sir’ but do not sit in the House of Lords.

Today in countries where titles are still used, people can be given a title for outstanding service to the nation. Some countries have abolished titles. The constitution of the United States forbids titles. The Soviet Union also allows no such titles, preferring to use the term "comrade", which is meant to indicate brotherhood and equality.

Heads of state/political leader

Prime ministers

In a monarch, the head of state is a king or queen.

The political leader of parliament is known as a prime minister.

President

In a republic, the head of state is usually elected and is mostly known as a president.

Chancellor

This term is used for the head of the parliament in Germany.

Premier

This term is used in different ways

▶ In Australia, it refers to the head of a state government.

▶ In some other countries it is used to refer to the leader of the nation’s parliament, such as the premier of France.

UNIT 1

The Start Of The Century

Chapter 1

Background To War

THE ROOTS OF THE CONFLICT

Prussia’s victory over France in the Franco-Prussian war of 1871 and the formation of the German empire made the newly United Germany the dominant power in Europe. German policy after 1871 was aimed at protecting this position from challenge by France. The French had been humiliated by their defeat and longed for revenge against Germany as well as for the recovery of the lost territory of Alsace and Lorraine.

Thus the German chancellor, Otto von Bismarck, saw the task of German foreign policy as the diplomatic isolation of France. He had realized that such isolation would make it impossible for the French to take their revenge, as France could not defeat Germany without allies. Bismarck sought to deny France allies, particularly any which would force Germany to fight on two fronts in any future war. Such an event, Bismarck realized, would be fatal for Germany.

BISMARCK’S DIPLOMATIC POLICY

Europe in the late 19th century was dominated by five great powers –

Germany, France, Britain, Russia and Austria-Hungary. Bismarck recognized this and had observed, ‘in a world governed by five powers, try to be in a group of three.’ In view of Britain’s desire to remain free from European entanglements, Bismarck sought an alliance with Austria-Hungary and Russia. Such an alliance would make Germany safe from attack from the east, put her in a grouping of three powers and leave France in diplomatic isolation. Bismarck had two basic aims in building up this network;

i. he wanted to gain friends/ allies for Germany

ii. He wanted to isolate France from the other European powers and keep her powerless

THE THREE EMPERORS LEAGUE

Bismarck’s first move to secure the isolation of France was to negotiate the Three Emperors League in 1873. Under the terms of the Three Emperor’s League, the emperors of Germany, Russia and Austria-Hungary agreed to consult each other in matters of international importance and to remain neutral should a fourth nation (i.e. France) attack any of them.

The major problem for Bismarck in this arrangement, however, was that Austria-Hungary and Russia were in competition with each other for influence over the Balkans. Bismarck’s fears of Germany being caught between its rival partners were realized by a war in the Balkans between Russia and Turkey in 1877.

Russia had gone to the aid of Serbia after the Serbs had risen in revolt against the Turks and attempted to expel Turkey from the Balkans. In the war that followed, the Russians defeated the Turks and gained clear domination the Balkan region. Austria-Hungary protested this development. Together with Britain, Austria-Hungary seemed ready to go to war in order to limit Russian influence in a region which was seen by both Vienna and London as of major strategic importance.

THE CONGRESS OF BERLIN

Bismarck was now caught between his two allies and he sought to mediate the dispute by convening a conference of the major European powers at Berlin in 1878. At this conference called the Congress of Berlin, Russia was forced to surrender much of the territory she had won from the Turks.

Two aspects of the territorial settlements achieved at Berlin were to be particular importance to the chain of events which caused the WWI. Under the terms of the settlement, Serbia was established as an independent state and the former Turkish territories of Bosnia and Hercogovina were handed over to Austria-Hungary to administer. These changes in the Balkans set up conditions which were to lead to tragedy in 1914.

The immediate impact of the settlement, however, was that the Russians left the congress resentful about Bismarck’s role in their diplomatic defeat, and suspicious of German policy.

THE DUAL ALLIANCE

In response to Russia’s hostility after the Congress of Berlin, Bismarck forged stronger links with Austria-Hungary by a secret treaty which established the Dual Alliance in 1879. In the Dual Alliance, Austria-Hungary and Germany agreed to help each other if either were attacked by Russia and to remain neutral if attacked by another power (i.e. France). This defensive alliance with Austria-Hungary was to remain the cornerstone of German policy right up until the WWI.

THE SECOND THREE EMPEROR’S LEAGUE

Russia did not long remain estranged from Germany, however, her only other potential ally in Europe was France. To autocratic Tsarist Russia, alliance with republican France was at this time out of the question. Furthermore, Russia feared that the strengthened German-Austro-Hungarian link might be against Russian interest in the Balkans. Thus in 1881, the Russians sought the renewal of the Three Emperors League to which both Bismarck and the Austro-Hungarians agreed. This meant the re-establishment of the German -Austro-Hungarian-Russian alliance. Each pledged neutrality if one of them went to war with a fourth European power.

THE TRIPLE ALLIANCE

In 1882, the Dual Alliance between Germany and Austria-Hungary was expanded into Triple Alliance by the inclusion of Italy. Italy made this move after it had come into conflict over the North African territory of Tunisia. Italy, it should be noted, was not regarded as one of Europe’s five great powers.

Under the terms of the Triple Alliance, Germany and Austria-Hungary agreed to aid Italy if she was attacked by France. Similarly, Italy undertook to go to war if France attacked Germany, and to fight with Austria-Hungary and Germany if either were attacked by two or more powers. (In 1883, Romania joined the Triple Alliance and Turkey joined in 1914)

THE REINSURANCE TREATY

In 1887, the Triple Alliance between Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy was renewed. However, because of tension between Russia and Austria-Hungary over influence in Bulgaria, the Russians refused to renew the Three Emperors League. Bismarck’s response was to negotiate the Reinsurance Treaty between Germany and Russia which was signed in June 1887. The object of the Reinsurance Treaty from Bismarck’s viewpoint was to keep Russia allied to Germany. Under the terms of the Treaty, each power promised neutrality if the other were attacked by another country.

Bismarck’s policy of isolating France was now complete. Of the five great European powers, Germany was in alliance with two – Austria-Hungary and Russia. At the same time, a lesser power, Italy was also tied to Germany. Britain at this time remained outside of European alliances. Thus, France was left in total diplomatic isolation. Germany was diplomatically secure, safe from attacks on two fronts and at the center of an alliance of three powers.

This successful but complicated alliance system was to end in 1890. In that year Bismarck resigned after clashing with the new emperor (Kaiser), William II. William wanted to direct his own foreign policy and on becoming Kaiser, quickly got rid of the old Chancellor.

Now without Bismarck’s guidance, German policy began to change. The most fateful move made by William and the new Chancellor (General Count Leo von Caprivi) was Germany’s refusal in 1890 to renew the Reinsurance Treaty with Russia. This was done in order to simplify Bismarck’s complex and contradictory treaty obligations and, to open the possibility of drawing Britain into the Triple Alliance. Britain and Russia were hostile to one another and some German leaders thought that by breaking with Russia, Germany might entice Britain into the Triple Alliance.

DUAL ENTENTE

The Russian response was to turn towards France. In 1891, Russia and France agreed to consult each other in the event of a threat to European peace. In 1892, they drew up an agreement on mutual military aid, to apply if either were attacked by Germany. In January 1894, Russia and France signed this military convention and became allies. This alliance was known as the Dual Entente.

Throughout this period, the possibility of a British alliance with Germany remained very real. Both France and Russia were colonial rivals and there existed areas of tension between these powers in Africa and Asia. However, German insensitivity towards British interest in colonial affairs, and more importantly the German decision in 1896 to build a battle fleet of a size that would threaten British naval superiority, destroyed the prospect of a British alliance with Germany.

These blunders by William II and his ministers began a process which freed France from the diplomatic isolation. The Italians were neutralized, when in secret negotiations with the France between 1900 and 1902, they gave assurances that they would not join Germany in war with France under any circumstances. Thus, the French had effectively removed the Italians from the Triple Alliance. This left only the British to be committed to one side or the other.

THE ENTENTE CORDIALE AND THE TRIPLE ENTENTE

By the turn of the century the British were alarmed at German policy and had realized that Britain’s continued diplomatic isolation in Europe was dangerous. Recognizing this changed attitude, the French approached the British and in 1904 signed an agreement which settled all outstanding colonial differences between the two countries. This settlement was known as the Entente Cordiale. A similar settlement was made between Russia and Britain while in 1907 the two countries negotiated the Anglo-Russian Entente under which they resolved their disagreements in Afghanistan and Persia. These settlements between Britain and France in 1904 and Russia in 1907 established a linkage between the three powers which became known as the Triple Entente.

THE DIPLOMATIC REVOLUTION

The Triple Entente was an anti-German alliance. German policy had alienated Britain even though some leaders on both sides saw these countries as natural allies. The British had sent out feelers for an alliance between 1899 and 1902 but had been rebuffed by the Germans. Furthermore German colonial and naval policy had ensured that such an alliance was impossible. France and Russia, nations with which Britain had frequently been in dispute, succeeded in settling their differences with her and drawing her into anti-German alliance.

Thus in the period between 1890 and 1907 Bismarck’s diplomacy had been reversed. As Europe began to drift towards the WWI, it was France, not Germany which belonged to a strong alliance – the Triple Entente, the grouping of three of Europe’s five major powers.

In the world at large there was an alliance between Britain and Japan and a cooperative relationship between Britain and the United States. This meant, that Germany stood with only Austria-Hungary against a loose coalition of six powers determined to resist German expansionism.

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Review Questions 11.1.1

1. What did Prince Otto von Bismarck see as the task of German foreign policy?

2. Identify the five great powers which dominated Europe in the late 19th century?

3. Which nations formed the Three Emperors League?

4. What two aspects of the territorial settlement achieved at the Congress of Berlin were of particular importance to the cause of WWI?

5. Which nations formed the Dual Alliance?

6. Which nation joined the Dual Alliance and transformed it into the Triple Alliance?

7. Which nations were signatories to the Reinsurance Treaty?

8. What was the object of the Reinsurance Treaty from Bismarck’s point of view?

9. Name the German emperor who abandoned the Reinsurance Treaty and who began to change Bismarck’s alliance systems?

10. Why did the new German emperor and his chancellor refuse to renew the Reinsurance Treaty?

11. Which two nations formed the Dual Entente?

12. What German policies destroyed the prospect of an alliance between Britain and Germany?

13. Which nations formed the Entente Cordiale?

14. How was the Entente Cordiale transformed into the Triple Entente?

15. In what way was Bismarck’s policy reversed between 1890 and 1907?

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Chronology and Events. 11.1.1

State the dates for the events given.

1. Franco-Prussian war.

2. Formation of Three Emperors League.

3. War in the Balkans between Russia and Turkey.

4. The Congress of Berlin.

5. Dual Alliance established.

6. The Second Three Emperors League

7. Formation of Triple Alliance

8. Reinsurance Treaty signed

9. Signing of Dual Entente

10. Triple Entente established

Chapter 2

Count Down To War

THE POLITICAL SYSTEMS OF THESE WORLD POWERS.

The USA, Britain and France had democratic forms of government. This means that they each had a parliament consisting of representatives elected by the people, and these parliaments had an important say in running the country. Some systems were not as democratic as they seemed. Germany had an elected lower house of parliament (Reichstag) but real power lies with the Chancellor (Prime Minister) and the Kaiser (Emperor). Italy was a Monarchy with an elected parliament, but the franchise was limited to wealthy people. Japan had an elected lower house, but here too the franchise was restricted, and the emperor and the Privy Council held most of the power.

The governments in Russia and Austria-Hungary were very different from the democracy of the west. The (Tsar), emperor of Russia and the emperor of Austria-Hungary were autocratic rulers. This means that although parliament existed, they could only advise the rulers; if they felt like it, the rulers could ignore the parliament and do exactly as they wished.

THE FIRST MOROCCAN CRISIS 1905

Under the terms of the Anglo-French agreement which established the Entente Cordiale in 1904, Britain recognized Morocco as a French sphere of influence and agreed that France held the right to intervene in Morocco should the authority of the Sultan of Morocco collapse.

Germany however, was unhappy with the extension of France influence in Morocco and sought to challenge it. German motives were mixed. Some members of the German government thought that such a challenge to agreements made under the terms of the Entente Cordiale could break up the Alliance between Britain and France.

The military high command thought that 1905 was a good year to settle Franco-German; disputes because Germany was militarily superior. Morocco could thus provide the pretext for a victorious war against the French.

In March 1905, the Kaiser visited Morocco and at the Port of Tangier declared his support for Moroccan independence. The Germans demanded an international conference to settle the question of Morocco’s status.

The conference on Morocco was held at Algeciras in Spain in 1906. With the support of Britain, Russia, Spain, Italy and the United States, France was assured a position and a dominant role in Morocco’s administration. Germany suffered a diplomatic defeat in this Algeciras conference. War had been avoided but rather than undermining, the Entente Cordiale, the Moroccan crisis of 1905 had strengthened it. In particular the crisis hardened the British attitude towards Germany, and British and French Generals began secret discussions in an event of a European war.

THE SECOND MOROCCAN CRISIS 1911

In 1911, when order broke down in the Moroccan capital of Fez, the French government dispatched troops to protect foreigners in the city. This act exceeded the terms of the 1906 agreement and in response, Germany sent a gunboat, the Panther to the Moroccan port of Agadir, and so triggered the second Moroccan crisis. The dispatch of the panther was an over reaction by the Germans and caused alarm throughout Europe. Germany now laid claim to the French Congo as compensation for French action in Morocco.

The Panther incident provoked strong reaction in both France and Britain. The British government made plain its determination to resist such German adventures and the British fleet was readied for action.

However, calm returned and a small concession of territory in the Congo was made by France to Germany and the crisis passed. France was assured a free hand in Morocco.

Again the Anglo-French alliance was strengthened and Germany gained very little. The significance of the crisis laid its contribution to heighten tension between the great powers, and particularly in Britain’s decision to act firmly to resist Germans expansionist policy

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, RUSSIA AND THE BALKANS

The second center of tension and crisis in the pre-war period was the Balkans. Here, Austria-Hungary and the Russians competed for influence and advantage as the Ottoman (Turkish) empire collapsed. The collapse of Turkish power left Turkish Balkan territory vulnerable. Austria-Hungary was interested in the Balkans as an area in which it might recover prestige and territory lost by the unification of Germany and Italy. As Austria-Hungary paid more attention to the region so did Russia which was spurred on by the idea of Pan Slavism – that is the idea that Russia should help fellow Slavs from foreign rule and lead them in Slavic federation. Moreover, when the defeat by Japan in 1905 thwarted her imperial ambitions in East Asia, Russia saw the Balkans as an area in which she might expand her influence as compensation.

THE BOSNIAN CRISIS 1908

In October 1908, the foreign ministers of Austria-Hungary and Russia made a deal to take what each wanted in the Balkans. For the Austro-Hungarians, this meant annexation of the two former Turkish provinces of Bosnia and Hercogovina which they had administered since the Congress of Berlin in 1878. Russia, meanwhile, was to claim the right to the free use of the Dardanelles straits to allow the Russian Black Sea Fleet access to the Mediterranean. The foreign ministers agreed to announce these measures.

However, after this bargain had been struck, while the Russian minister was in Paris, the Austro-Hungarian announced their annexation separately. The adverse reaction of the other European powers was such that Russia for its part could not now claim its half of the bargain.

The Austro-Hungarian action so inflamed opinion in Russia that the Russian foreign minister denied any deal had been made, condemned the Austro-Hungarian action and called for an international conference to put the situation right. Serbia began agitation against the annexation and in response Austria-Hungary began mobilization against Serbia.

Conflict between Serbia and Austria could well have expanded to a general European war. To prevent this, Britain sought to mediate the crisis, save Russian face and avoid war. However, in March 1909, the Germans proposed that the Austrian annexation should stand and not be modified in any way. When Russia delayed in accepting this proposal, Germany laid it on the line: Russia had to accept the annexations or war would follow. At this point the Russians backed down and the crisis ended.

THE EFFECTS OF THE BOSNIAN CRISIS

The Bosnian crisis of 1908 served to make the Entente powers suspicious of German ambition and further cemented the Entente alliance by making Russia even more dependent on French and British support than before. Russia after 1908 began to build an anti-Austrian coalition in the Balkans and to encourage Serbia, now a sworn enemy of Austria and anti-Austrian agitation among the Slav minorities of the Austro-Hungarian Empire.

THE ARMS RACE

Until the first Moroccan crisis few Britons worried about Germany’s growing navy. It would take years for the Germans to catch up with the Royal Navy

THE DREADNOUGHT RACE

Britain’s lead further increased when she launched the first Dreadnought Class Battleship in 1906. Here was a ship with 11 inch amour plating for protection which could also outgun and outrace any battleship afloat. These details show how the Dreadnought design compared with a battleship built only one year before.

HMS Dominion built 1905; 16350 tons, length 457 feet, 4 twelve inch guns, 5 torpedo tubes; amour 9 inches thick; top speed 18.2 knots.

HMS Dreadnought built 1906: 17 900 tons, length 526 feet, 10 twelve inch guns, 18 four inch guns, 5 torpedo tubes; amour 11 inches thick; top speed 21.6 knots.

The Germans were horrified by this new threat. There was even talk that Britain might launch a surprise attack on the German fleet. The Anglo-Russian entente of 1907 added to this fear. Britain was now allied with both France and Russia in the Triple Entente. The Germans complaint that they were surrounded by hostile powers.

Yet HMS Dreadnought also made most of Britain’s battleships obsolete. By building Dreadnoughts of their own the Germans began to quickly catch-up with the British. Britain replied by speeding up her own ship building programs. A full scale naval race had developed.

The naval race was part of a general arms race between all the big powers. The Generals and admirals claimed that a large modern army and navy was the only way to keep the peace. No enemy, they said, would attack a nation which strong armed forces to defend itself.

THE FIRST BALKAN WAR – 1912

The second round of crisis in the Balkans was touched off by the Italian decision in September 1911 to take advantage of Turkish weakness and seized the Turkish province of Tripoli in North Africa. With Turkey at war with Italy, the Balkan countries were fearful that Austria might take advantage of the situation and seize the remaining Turkish possessions in the Balkans region. Thus Bulgaria, Serbia, Greece and Montenegro formed the Balkan League in 1912 and in October of that year they decided to take advantage of the situation themselves. The League members attacked the Turkish forces in the Balkans and drove them back to the Dardanelles Straits

When the members of the Balkan League began to divide up the territories gained by their victory over the Turks, the great powers intervened. Austria demanded that Serbia, its, arch enemy, in the region be denied access to the sea, while Russia demanded that Serbia should be granted such access. Germany tried to save what she could for Turkey, whom she was cultivating as an ally. She also sought to limit Russian gains in the region. Meanwhile Britain and France intervened to ensure that the conflict did not spread. By December 1912, the sense of crisis was so acute that war between Russia and Austria-Hungary seemed possible as both powers had partially mobilized

What averted a conflict was the restraint shown by Britain and Germany, with the latter refusing to back Austrian plans for action. Instead Germany assisted British mediation efforts and supported a conference in London in 1913 to find a peaceful solution. The London Conference denied Serbia access to the Adriatic Sea but compensated her with land elsewhere.

THE SECOND BALKAN WAR 1913

In June 1913, a second Balkan War erupted when Bulgaria attacked her allies, Serbia and Greece, in a squabble over the spoils. Bulgaria was defeated in the conflict which followed and lost much of what she had formerly gained.

The significance of the Balkan crisis of 1912-13 lay in the fact that Britain, France and Germany had kept their heads. They had restrained their irresponsible allies, Austria-Hungary and Russia, from actions which might have touched off a wider conflict. However, the cost was high. Austria-Hungary and Russia condemned their allies for not backing them in the Balkans and this made the senior partners in the respective alliances fearful of losing the support of these countries if they did not provide stronger backing in the next crisis.

Further, the diplomatic efforts to avert war had exhausted the statesman who led the great powers and a sense of fatalism crept into great power relations with each side feeling that a general war was inevitable. This coupled with the highly charged atmosphere created by the events of Balkan crisis of 1912-13, meant that the next crisis would be particularly hard to contain. Such a crisis occurred in July 1914. It was not contained and the WWI was the consequence.

Review Questions 11.1.2

1. What areas of the world were the center of tension between France and Germany, and Austria-Hungary and Russia?

2. Who visited Morocco in 1905 and triggered the first Moroccan?

3. What were the German motives for intervention in Morocco in 1905?

4. Identify the nations which supported the French position in Morocco at the Algeciras.

5. What effects did the Moroccan crisis of 1905 have on the Entente Cordiale?

6. What action by Germany triggered the second Moroccan crisis of 1911?

7. What was the significance of the second Moroccan crisis of 1911?

8. Which empire was in collapse in the Balkan region, allowing Austria-Hungary and Russia to compete for influence and advantage?

9. Why was Austria-Hungary interested in the Balkans? Why was Russia interested in the Balkans?

10. Name the Turkish provinces in the Balkans annexed by Austria-Hungary in 1908, causing an international crisis.

11. What were the effects of the Bosnian crisis of 1908?

12. Which nations formed the Balkan League in 1912?

13. How was the Balkan crisis of 1912-13 resolved?

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Chapter 3

Causes Of The WW I

THE UNDERLYING CAUSES OF WWI WERE;

1. NATIONALISM

2. IMPERIALISM

3. MILITARISM

4. ALLIANCE SYSTEM

A NATIONALISM

Nationalism is the strong movement to form a nation, is the idea of political democracy, with the resulting idea that people of the same ethnic origin, language, and political ideals had the right to independent states.

At the close of the century, however, the problem of nationalism was still unresolved in especially the Balkan areas of Europe, resulting in tensions both within the regions involved and between various European nations. The particularly prominent nationalistic movement,