Public Garden Management: a Global Perspective: Volume I

By BIJAN DEHGAN

Public Gardens Management: A Global Perspective provides essential information about public gardens and what is involved in designing, managing, and maintaining one. Although suitable as a textbook, its audience will include anyone with direct or peripheral responsibility for administration or supervision of a complex organization that requires scientific knowledge as well as public relations and business acumen. It may also prove useful for homeowners, for there is no fundamental difference between growing plants in a public garden or a home garden, a fact reflected in the extensive reference citations.
The topic is multidisciplinary and as old as the beginning of human civilization when the concept of mental and physical restoration was realized by early man while he/she was in a natural but well-ordered garden environment. Thus began the art of garden making. Many volumes have been written on every applicable subject discussed in this and similar publications. Indeed the voluminous literature on history, design, horticulture, and numerous related subjects is nothing short of overwhelming. Accordingly, anyone involved in management of public gardens, whether as a director or area supervisor, and irrespective of the type and size of such facility, would have to have familiarity with various aspects of garden organization and administration.
However, despite the enormous number and diversity of such publications there are very few books that deal with the multiplicity of the topics in such a manner as to be practical in approach and cover most relevant and unified issues in a single book. These volumes provide the essential background information on plants, animals, management, maintenance, fundraising and finances, as well as history, art, design, education, and conservation. They also cover a host of interrelated subjects and responsible organization of such activities as creating a childrens garden, horticultural therapy, conservatories, zoological gardens, and parks, hence, administration of multidimensional public gardens.
Nearly 500 full color plates representing illustrations from gardens in more than 30 countries are provided to assist and guide students and other interested individuals with history and the fundamental issues of public garden management. The 15 chapters begin with the need for public gardens, types of public gardens, historical backgrounds, as well as design diversity. Numerous quotations are included from many garden lovers, landscape architects, philosophers, and others. The authors primary aim in writing this book was based on the confidence that a relevant reference, between the encyclopedic nature of some and the specific subject matter of others, could be used to provide fundamental information for management of public as well as private gardens.
The boundary between botanical and zoological gardens and parks is no longer as distinct as it once was. In part it is because a garden is not a garden without plants and in part it has become apparent that for all practical intents and purposes all animals need plants for their survival. Visitors of zoological gardens expect to see more than just animals; zoos are landscaped grounds. Moreover, most communities find it financially difficult to simultaneously operate a botanical garden or an arboretum as well as a zoological garden and city parks. A number of public gardens are currently referred to as botanical and zoological garden.
Population density and the publics desires and expectations, as well as financial requirements, are among the reasons for some major city parks, such as Golden Gate in San Francisco, Central Park in New York City, and Lincoln Park in Chicago which integrate botanical or zoological divisions as well as museums and recreational facilities. While this book attempts to provide basic principles involved in public garden management, it does not claim to be a substitute for broader familiarity

• Language: English
• Publisher: Xlibris US
• Release date: Apr 15, 2014
• ISBN: 9781493161805

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Copyright © 2014 by BIJAN DEHGAN. 141826-DEHG

Library of Congress Control Number: 2014900379

ISBN: Softcover  978-1-4931-6178-2

ISBN: Hardcover  978-1-4931-6179-9

ISBN: EBook      978-1-4931-6180-5

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Rev. date: 03/27/2014

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Contents

Acknowledgments

Foreword

Why Do We Need Public Gardens?

Public Gardens And Their Functions

History And Overview Of Some

Extant Public Gardens

Garden Development And Design

Formal And Informal Gardens

Oriental Gardens

Flower Gardens

Rock Gardens

Rose Garden

Water In Gardens

Children’s` Garden

Plant Collecting Expedition And Herbarium

Expeditions And Field Collections

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Writing a book is a solitary undertaking. One hides in an office facing a lifeless computer screen that only on occasion acknowledges contact with the wrong key or untenable expectations of the author by making an aggravating bling. But in the end when all is seemingly said and done and the work is erroneously assumed to have been completed, there arises a nagging question, did I really do this work all by myself or did others play a vital role as well? Yes, I did write these words but how could I possibly have done so without the help of the many authors who have had greater insight on the subject and without the support of the individuals who over the years assisted with my excursions in many countries around the world. Then there are those who shared my life by patiently facilitating my job and my being. A good place to start is with Fe Almira, my technical assistant for more than 25 years, who quietly and without reluctance performed her research-related duties and responsibilities every day, even on weekends and holidays, when necessary. She also accompanied me and tolerated some difficult plant collecting trips to Mexican deserts and Amazon rainforests. However, it is Fe’s contribution of the excellent photographs from the Canadian botanical gardens (Butchart, Queen Elizabeth, and Montreal) for which I owe her a debt of gratitude. Together we also visited several botanical and zoological gardens in the United States and a few other countries where both of us did extensive photography and I have probably used other pictures taken by her.

In addition, Tom Wichman and Crystal Southerland, coordinators of children’s programs at the University of Florida Agricultural Extension, kindly provided the beautiful photographs of children gardening. Several individuals have given generously of their time by facilitating, guiding, and/or accompanying me in various countries and gardens. Dr. Benny Tjia, former colleague and friend, was responsible for my trip to Indonesia, where he and his wonderful wife, Jenny, thoughtfully arranged the garden visits. I am equally grateful to Swangpal Sasivimon, former graduate student and now faculty member at Mahidal University International College in Bangkok, and her delightful family, for my visit to Thailand. On the other side of the world, in South America, a most gentle and influential lady, Lorena Kempff, arranged our visit and introduced us to Ramon Vargas and his wife Suzanne, who drove us around much of Bolivia, sometimes until as late as 4AM.

Several other individuals and organizations have been of enormous help in assisting with and expediting my visits to Brazil, Mexico, Russia, Australia, several European, Central American, and Caribbean countries, among others. But I am particularly appreciative of Antonio Lopez and the many wonderful people of the Canary Islands for their hospitality during my visits. And, as the greatest reward for me is the knowledge that several of my former undergraduates and graduate students are now employees and in some cases even directors of public gardens, to them I dedicate this book, because, to use a pedestrian expression, they kept me on my toes by persuading me to learn more about public gardens.

I would be remiss if I neglected to thank my colleague Dr. Laurie Trenholm, professor of turfgrass science, for her contribution to this book. And, last but most assuredly not least, I thank my wife Nancy for her patience and understanding about my numerous absences while on garden visits, student field trips, plant collecting expeditions, and while I was being busy writing research reports and books or preparing lectures while hiding in my man cave over the years. In the end, publication of this work would not be possible without the careful meticulous editing of Wendy Thornton.

FOREWORD

This handbook provides essential information about public gardens and what is involved in managing and maintaining one. Although suitable as a textbook, its audience includes anyone with direct or peripheral responsibility for administration or supervision of a complex organization that requires scientific knowledge as well as public relations and business sense. It may also prove useful for homeowners, for there is no fundamental difference between growing plants in a public garden or in a home garden, a fact that is reflected in the reference citations. The topic under discussion is multidisciplinary and is as old as the beginning of human civilization when the concept of mental and physical restoration was realized by early man while he/she was in a natural but well-ordered garden environment. Thus began the art of garden making.

Many volumes have been written on every applicable subject discussed in this and similar publications. Indeed the voluminous literature on history, design, horticulture, and numerous related subjects is nothing short of overwhelming. Accordingly, anyone involved in the management of public gardens, whether as a director or area supervisor, and irrespective of the type and size of such facility, would have to have familiarity with various aspects of garden organization and administration. However, despite the enormous number and diversity of such publications there are but very few books that deal with the multiplicity of these topics in such manner as to be practical in approach and cover the most relevant and unified issues in a single volume. Although this book provides essential background information, it is unreasonable to expect a single individual to be expert in plants, animals, management, maintenance, fundraising and finances, as well as art, design, education, conservation, and a whole host of interrelated responsibilities involved in administration of a multidimensional organization. Nevertheless, many illustrations from many gardens are provided to assist and guide interested individuals with history and the fundamental issues of public garden management.

After teaching a class in public garden management for nearly 20 years, it became increasingly apparent to me that no single textbook could be assigned to the students that would cover all the more applicable topics. Thus, my aim in writing this book is based on my confidence that a relevant reference, between the encyclopedic nature of some and specific subject matter of others, could be used for providing fundamental information for management of public as well as private gardens. This book, however, is by no means a comprehensive treatment of the subject and does not propose to exhaust all necessary issues. It is written with the expectation that it would fill a void by offering a more practical approach to some of the more important topics directly related to management and maintenance of public gardens.

Obviously since this author’s educational background and experience is in botany and horticulture there is more emphasis on plant-related topics as opposed to animal-related. Nevertheless, in recent years the boundary between botanical and zoological gardens has become indistinct, in part because a garden is not a garden without plants and in part because it has become apparent that, for all practical intents and purposes, all animals need plants for their survival and visitors of zoological gardens expect to see more than just animals; zoos are landscaped grounds. Moreover, most communities find it financially difficult to simultaneously operate a botanical garden or an arboretum as well as a zoological garden and city parks. A number of public gardens are currently referred to as botanical and zoological gardens. Population density and the public’s desires and expectations as well as financial requirements are among the reasons why some major city parks, such as Golden Gate in San Francisco, Central Park in New York City, and Lincoln Park in Chicago, integrate botanical or zoological divisions as well as museums and recreational facilities.

Although the primary intent of this book is familiarity with principles of garden management, effective introduction of each topic cannot be considered without a brief overview of the historical background, in concert with a photographic sampling of extant gardens. Examples from many public gardens and similar facilities in more than 30 countries are used to illustrate various topics. No single garden or country, however, is the specific focus of this book. The topics deal in operational generalities that apply to gardens anywhere. Maintenance and management operations of a garden or conservatory are not the same in a tropical region as it is in temperate climate areas, and size does matter. Thus, when and if this book is used as text the instructor should make a judgment on what is more relevant to the students in that region. For example, conservatories are more essential in cooler temperate climates than they are in the warm tropics. Plants in the landscape differ significantly as well.

To be an efficient and competent manger educational background essential for daily operation of gardens, such as plant and/or animal identification or taxonomy, ecology, biogeography, as well as landscape maintenance, arboriculture, turfgrass management, pest control, and other subjects may be necessary. Irrespective of educational background, there is no substitute for personal observation and familiarity with local, and equally as important, international gardens. Field trips are essential for garden employees as well as students if they are to grasp the operational management philosophy of such facilities. Maintenance of a formal garden in France is not the same as that of the open vistas of the English style gardens in Britain or the United States. There are financial as well as expertise elements involved and only firsthand observation can best meet the learning process. No doubt photographs and lecture discussions are helpful but they are not a substitute for personal visits and meetings with individuals responsible for garden operations. Ideally all students and newly hired garden employees should have internship opportunities for a period of time, preferably in a garden of their choice, when possible. Student field trips and internship reports should include photographic documentation of what has been seen and critique of all aspects of garden design, maintenance, and administration.

While this book attempts to provide basic principles involved in public garden management, it should be clearly understood that in itself it is not a substitute for broader familiarity with specific areas of garden operations. The extensive reference list included in every chapter should provide a starting point from which broader perspective of each topic can be studied. Although literature is extensive for this book to avoid cluttering sentences and making them more readable, references are cited in text only when absolutely necessary, such as in quotations or when specifically and directly relevant to the topic at hand. Some additional references were added, particularly in Chapter Four, Garden Development, which may not have been specifically discussed or emphasized in the text but are relevant in the context of other topics. For example, the discussion includes scented gardens and plants that relate to roses or creation of scent gardens, such as those in the New York Botanical Garden.

As the old expression goes, a picture is worth a thousand words. For more than 40 years I have travelled to nearly 30 countries, from tropical Central and South America and Southeast Asia to cold temperate Russia and Mediterranean Europe, as well as the east and west coasts of the United States, among others. Florida’s warmer climate in particular has proven to be a blessing that resulted in development of largest number of public gardens of all types in the United States and provided opportunities for personal and student visits. In all, I have visited many gardens, photographed them as much as possible, and collected plants for my taxonomic research, where they existed. The result has been too much of a good thing: in excess of 30,000 photographs on film, many of which have been scanned to digital format and others that were originally digital. Having these many photographs is a blessing, but selecting a relative few for inclusion in this book has been nothing short of frustrating. Even with all the options I have had to borrow some photographs from two other individuals in places I had not visited or subjects, such as children’s gardening, I have not personally dealt with. Nevertheless, I was ultimately determined to use pictures that illustrated examples from different gardens to represent a broader perspective of what is possible or to suggest practical ideas or to drive home pertinent points. A deliberate and somewhat detailed caption for each plate provides useful supplemental information about material discussed in the text. Figures are not referenced in the text for the same reason that literature citations are mostly avoided, but plates are for the most part arranged so that they follow the subject matter of the text. This approach is analogous to teaching a class using PowerPoint illustrations.

Public gardens and their management are crucial to modern society. In an increasingly urbanized world, the importance of the natural and built environment cannot be underestimated. I have used my nearly 40 years of teaching and research experience to create a body of knowledge that students and the gardening public at large should find interesting and useful.

CHAPTER 1

WHY DO WE NEED PUBLIC GARDENS?

Earth is a plant-oriented planet. The green plant is fundamental to all other life. Were humanity to perish tomorrow vines would destroy our mighty temples and grass would soon grow in the main streets of the world. In contrast, the disappearance of plants would be accompanied by disappearance of humankind along with every other animal.

Janick (1992)

The old adage is that we often miss the forest because of the trees. This is analogous to people not realizing that the life support system of humans and other animals depends on the green plants that grow around us. The air we breathe, the food we eat, the clothes we wear, the medicine we take to get well, the shade of trees we sit under to cool off, the fragrance of flowers, and the enhanced beauty of our natural and landscaped surroundings all depend on plants. A logical question then would be; is there anything in our lives, other than minerals, that does not directly or indirectly involve plants? If the answer is no, as it should be, then is it not a reasonable supposition that gardens, private or public, are necessities.

Irrespective of conscious thought about our absolute dependence on plants, there is a subconscious connection between humans and other biological entities in our world. Edward Wilson (1984) coined the term Biophilia to express our desire to be close to nature which is determined by a biological need. According to Wilson, there is also an emotional and spiritual dimension to our relationship with the green world and other animal species. He also coined the term Biophobia to denote things in nature that frighten us, such as snakes, wild animals, or thorny plants. The Gaia Hypothesis, as proposed by James Lovelock and Lynn Margulis (Thompson, 1987; Joseph, 1990), postulates that earth’s ecosystems collectively form a living organism of which the human species is but a single element. Thus, the interconnectedness of all elements in nature demands that the human species have the innate need and desire to be part of the whole. Intimate contact with nature, be it a national forest or park or a botanical garden or a zoo, fosters psychological and physical well-being. The creators of ancient Persian, Egyptian, and Chinese gardens went to great lengths to maintain such connections. It is also the justification in modern societies for creating parks and preserving wilderness, as it has been in centuries past.

The garden offers us a glimpse of a new definition of the sacred that embraces the individual, the community, and the earth as aspects of the same unifying spirit. This is an ancient connection, and it is still honored in traditional cultures.

Nollman (1994)

Love of nature and all things natural, as the term Biophilia implies, is perhaps an inherited genetic trait that, on the basis of comprehending the reality of our interdependence with plants and animals, necessitates direct contact with them. Gardening, visiting gardens, parks and zoos, and adopting pets and caring for them are the means that give pleasure and satisfy our visual and psychological needs.

Gardens are the link between men and the world in which they live for men in every age have felt the need to reconcile themselves with their surroundings and have created gardens to satisfy their ideals and aspirations.

Crowe (1981)

Francis Bacon, the 17th century philosopher, wrote, "Gardening is the purest of human pleasures." Accordingly, public gardens, irrespective of their identity or function, are perhaps the recreation of a bit of paradise within an imperfect world. It is nature aesthetically controlled for pleasurable and educational purposes. To quote Mirabel Osler (1989), "Gardens are the theaters; they are there to enchant, to exhilarate, to deceive and to captivate." Gardens, whether public or private, allow us to reach within ourselves in order to discover the roots that connect us with our surroundings and from which we develop a sense of belonging, or as Jim Nolan (1994), points out "a sense of place." Public gardens are places where we can meet nature halfway.

As noted in The Koran, "Bread feeds the body, indeed, but flowers feed also the soul." There is a spirituality associated with well-designed and well-maintained gardens that encompasses love, beauty, harmony, and art. Claire O’Rush (1996), in The Enchanted Garden, declares that there is an angel watching over every garden and "Angel embraces, channeling their love, their divinity, their mothering spirit, into forms of Nature and physical being, incorporating all the four elements, because there is loving and mystic co-operation and communion between the Mighty Four."

Perhaps Oscar Wilde was correct when he wrote The story of mankind began in a garden and ended in revelation. That paradise or Paradisio, as it is called in ancient Persian, where the word originated, is the planet we live on, a concept clearly referred to in most, if not all, world religions. The story of man’s creation in the Garden of Eden, as noted in a fascinating statement in the Old Testament, is similar in nearly all religions:

And the Lord God planted a garden eastward in Eden,

and there he put the man whom he had formed.

And out of the ground made the Lord God to grow every

tree that is pleasant to the sight, and good for food;

the tree of life also in the midst of the garden, and the tree

of knowledge of good and evil.

A river flowed out of Eden to water the garden and there

it parted and became four rivers …. The Lord God took

The man and put him in the Garden of Eden to till it and keep it.

Genesis 2: 8-10

To digress for a moment, this statement has often been interpreted as referring to the Euphrates and Tigris rivers that begin in Turkey and empty into the Persian Gulf. They provided much of the water that supported the development of ancient Mesopotamian culture.  The Tigris-Euphrates valley was the birthplace of the ancient civilizations of Assyria, Babylonia, and Samaria. However, there is no indication that these rivers parted into four branches. A bio-geographical fact, or perhaps elucidation of ancient landscape architecture, may be an equal or more plausible explanation. As a general rule eastern parts of all continents and land masses are more forested and greener than western parts. With some exceptions caused by geology of the regions, this is the result of the earth’s rotation where trade winds move from an east to west direction. Also as a general rule there is significantly more rainfall in eastern parts and consequently a much larger number of rivers that branch. Thus, the reference to eastward in Eden and parted and became four rivers are possible logical conclusions.

The Persian miniature painting Beghe Vafa as well as some modern Islamic gardens (see chapter on garden history) clearly illustrate four sections separated by water running between them and ultimately emptying into a small pool. At least that is how it they are described in most garden history literature. This indicates that the above biblical statement has a foundation in ancient and modern civilizations, and denotes the importance of gardens to mankind, irrespective of any religious belief.

It is of notable interest that the Garden of Eden and the expulsion of Adam and Eve has been represented in numerous paintings by many artists in various regions. Are humans violating rules of the garden earth as did Adam and Eve? Will we ultimately be expelled (self destruct) because we are disregarding love and respect for the mother earth? Conserving endangered habitats and creating more gardens for preservation of all that is good to the sight and the tree of knowledge and for the simple pleasure of being may be our only salvation.

Gardens and Population Dynamics

Earth’s population has reached seven billion and will exceed that number in the not too distant future. A vast majority of the population congregates in large numbers in clustered city neighborhoods in apartments or high rise buildings with access to little or no place to plant a garden. Well-maintained breathing-spaces should be planned while there is still time. This is simply a matter of generating physical and mental well-being for present and future generations of city dwellers who will be otherwise deprived of open spaces and the beauty and charm of flowers and animals. Public gardens and parks should be designed not just for amusement, but in such a manner as to, at least in part, reflect appropriate natural habitats and to provide educational opportunities for learning about diversity of plants and animals as they exist in the wild. To quote Maurice Maeterlinck, Belgian dramatist and Poet (1862-1949,); Can we conceive what humanity would be if it did not know the flowers?

Although the power of plants can often work instant miracles on distressed souls, the garden has by now firmly lodged itself in our minds as a place readily available to most of us, where dreams can be fostered and just may come true, where there is always a second chance, a tomorrow.

Brown (1999)

Visiting a public garden is not simply a matter of observing nature’s beauty in managed landscapes; it is to awaken and maintain our sanity, optimism, and happiness:

When in these fresh mornings I go to my garden before anyone is awake, I go for the time being into perfect happiness. In this hour divinely fresh and still, the fair face of every flower salutes me with a silent joy that fills me with infinite content; each gives me its color, its grace, its perfume, and enriches me with the consummation of its beauty

Celia Thaxter, Poet (1838-1894)

Urbanization and Industrialization

The physical and biological environment in cities has been drastically altered as a result of urbanization and industrial activities. Often natural ecosystems that included arborescent green plants have been replaced with asphalt and cement and perhaps, at least in some cases, a patch of wasteful green grass that uses significant energy for mowing and untold amounts of water and fertilizer to keep green. Of course turf is appropriate where it is an integral part of well-designed public gardens or, within limits, for sport facilities such as golf courses, particularly when they also incorporate residential buildings.

Within this idealized fragment of nature one can withdraw for awhile, isolate oneself from our citified, high-speed, high-tech, high-rise existence, and touch a world that seems more remote but more essential everyday. Perhaps this is what we seek most in a garden, its ability to evoke the presence of nature to transport us in a few steps to a microcosm that is not all bright and shiny, molded, cut, and cast out of concrete, steel, and glass.

Malitz (1989)

Physical and Psychological Benefits of Public Gardens

People need places to escape, gain ideas, and commune with nature. The human spirit needs