One Zambia, One Nation, One Country

By Mwelwa C. Musambachime

Zambia became an independent Republic of Zambia on 24 October 1964, with Kenneth Kaunda as the first president for twenty-seven years, He and his successors have, over the last fifty years, created a stable and united nation under the motto One Zambia, One Nation. Zambia is regarded as a beautiful, friendly, diverse, and unspoilt country. Aside from the majestic Victoria Falls on the Zambezi River, despite its considerable mineral wealth and agricultural potential, Zambia is not well known. This book One Zambia, One Nation, One, Country, provides the reader with a virtual guide to Zambia's profile of her geographical location, forestry, rivers, lakes and dams, history people and its government, culture, governance, economy. Economy, wild life, tourism and. social services. In addition it gives comprehensive information for the potential tourists. The motto One Zambia, One Nation is borrowed from our coat of arms to provide a title to this book dedicated to President Kenneth David Kaunda, the founding father of the nation, for his service to the nation, uniting the country and building a strong foundation of a modern, stable, and united nation.

• Language: English
• Publisher: Xlibris UK
• Release date: Apr 7, 2016
• ISBN: 9781514462287

Mwelwa C. Musambachime

The author is a graduate of the Universities of Zambia in Lusaka (1974), Wisconsin at Madison, USA (1976, 1981) and Uppsala, Sweden (1994). He has taught at the University of Zambia 1974 1997, 2005 - to the present. As a member of staff at the University of Zambia from 1974 to 1997, he served in many positions as Head of Department, Dean of the School of Education, Director of the Institute of Human Relations and Research and Graduate Studies He was also a visiting scholar at Miami University, oxford, Ohio), in United States of America(1984 to 1985); Cape Town (1991) and Natal, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa(1993); Chancellor College, Malawi (1995) the several universities in the USA, South Africa, Malawi, Switzerland, Germany, Sweden, Burundi, Madagascar and France. History He was also a recipient of many awards. Between1997 to 2000, he taught at the University of Namibia as Professor and Head of the Department of History. Between September 2000 and March 2005, he served as Zambias Ambassador and Permanent Representative at the United Nations, New York and was non -resident Ambassador to the Republic of Cuba, and nonresident High Commissioner to Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago, Barbados, Guyana and other English-speaking Commonwealth countries in the West Indies. Currently, he is Professor of History at the University of Zambia. He has done extensive research and published widely on in political, economic, social, health, veterinary, and environmental issues in Eastern and Southern Africa.

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Copyright © 2016 by Mwelwa C. Musambachime

Library of Congress Control Number:   2015917407

ISBN:      Hardcover   978-1-5144-6230-0

                Softcover      978-1-5144-6229-4

                eBook           978-1-5144-6228-7

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Rev. date: 04/05/2016

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Contents

Introduction

Abbreviations

A. GEOGRAPHY

Chapter 1 Geography: Location

Chapter 2 Climate

Chapter 3 Geology and Soils

Chapter 4 Forests in Zambia

Chapter 5 Rivers and Waterways

B. PEOPLE

Chapter 6 History of the Nation

Chapter 7 Ethnic and Linguistic Composition of the Population

Chapter 8 Main Languages Spoken in Zambia

Chapter 9 Kinship and Clans

Chapter 10 Customs and Traditions

Chapter 11 Culture

Chapter 12 Traditional Zambian Dances

Chapter 13 Cultural Tourism: Annual Festivals or Ceremonies

Chapter 14 Theatre

Chapter 15 Preparation of Local Foods and Drinks

C. GOVERNANCE

Chapter 16 Governance of the Country

Chapter 17 Central Government

Chapter 18 Defence and Security

Chapter 19 Foreign Policy

D. MASS COMMUNICATION

Chapter 20 Mass Media

Chapter 21 Zambia Information and Communications Technology Authority (ZICTA)

E. ECONOMY

Chapter 22 Financial Institutions

Chapter 23 Transport

Chapter 24 Labour

Chapter 25 Economic Review

Chapter 26 Mining of Metals and Semi-Precious Stones

Chapter 27 Agriculture

Chapter 28 Fisheries

Chapter 29 Energy

Chapter 30 Manufacturing

Chapter 31 Foreign Trade---Imports and Exports

Chapter 32 Wildlife

Chapter 33 Tourism

F. INFORMATION FOR FOREIGN TOURISTS

Chapter 34 Basic Information for Tourists

Chapter 35 Health

Chapter 36 Housing

Chapter 37 Education

Chapter 38 Sports and Recreation

Chapter 39 Conclusion

Selected Sources

Table

Table 1: Rainfall and temperature figures over Zambia

Table 3: Indigenous fruit species in Zambia

Table 4: Population Figures, 1981--2010

Table 5: Main Population centres

Table 6: Location of ethnic groups discussed in the study by Province and District

Table 7: Cultural ceremonies by Province, Chiefs, and Dates

Table 8: Foreign Missions Accredited to Zambia

Table 9: Airlines servicing Zambia

To Dr Kenneth David Kaunda, first president and founding father of the Republic of Zambia (1964--1991), for leading the nation in unity, stability, and development.

Introduction

The Republic of Zambia has just celebrated fifty-one years of nationhood in peace, unity, and harmony. The country has been able to maintain peace and offer sanctuary to refugees from different countries. Zambia is a hub of peace developing fast in the social, political, and economic spheres. These developments are fast in some areas and slower in others depending on availability, efficient exploitation, and management of renewable and non-renewable resources; mobilisation of funds, direct foreign investment and aid; quality and quantity of medical facilities; prevailing peace and security in the country and region; development and growth of democratic institutions. The successive governments have all tried to share resources equitably and bring developments to all parts of the country. To appreciate efforts being made requires a good knowledge of the country. Zambia is greatly endowed with a lot of resources: minerals, fertile land, forests, and abundant water. It is a country that is trying hard to develop and improve the well-being of her people in agriculture, mining, tourism, and development of roads, and infrastructure.

For a variety of reasons, there is a great need of wanting to know more about Zambia and geopolitical position within Southern Africa, the Southern African Development Community (SADC). It is one of the important producers of copper, which provides 94 per cent of foreign exchange. Her agricultural and mineral developments, tour attractions, fight against poverty, impact of the drought, struggle to reduce HIV/AIDS and attend to the problems of the orphans and other vulnerable groups, fight to diversify her economy, and many more other reasons have created an interest in scholars, students, tourists, missionaries, and the general public wishing to know more about the country, its leadership, policies, and strategies.

Most of the information on the country is available in books, journals, magazines and newspapers, as well as many unpublished papers. What is required is to collect and put them in a book form. One Zambia, One Country, One Nation: A Source Book is a response to fill this void and place information on the country before the reader. It is my hope that this book dedicated to our First President, popularly known as KK, will be able to provide some of the useful and basic information on the country, people, economy, and tourism of the Republic of Zambia. In completing this book, I wish to thank my wife and grandchildren for their support.

The book is presented in thirty-nine chapters arranged in the following sections: geography, people and culture, governance, economy, information for tourists, and social services. It includes selected bibliography.

Abbreviations

A. GEOGRAPHY

Chapter 1

Geography: Location

Zambia the Country

The Republic of Zambia, formerly a British colony called Northern Rhodesia, attained its independence from Great Britain on 24 October 1964 under the leadership of Dr Kenneth David Kaunda as first president. 'One Zambia, one nation' was adopted as the national motto (and slogan) as a way of uniting the seventy-three ethnic groups, plus Europeans, Asians, and Africans from different parts of the continent living in the country. The motto was taught at all educational levels and was widely embraced by all nationals at work, prayers, and social gatherings and ceremonies. It has been borrowed to provide a title to this study.

Zambia lies between latitudes 8º and 18º south and longitudes 22º and 34º east, covering an area of 752,614 square kilometres or 290,586 square miles. The country is a landlocked state in South Central Africa but linked to all its neighbours by road, railway water and air. The land occupies an area of 740,724 square kilometres while water covers an area of 11,890 square kilometres. It has a total area of 752,618 square kilometres, of which 9,220 square kilometres are occupied by water in form of rivers, lakes, swamps, marshes and man-made dams.

The country shares boundaries with eight neighbours totalling 5,664 kilometres. On the west is Angola (1,110 kilometres); northwest is the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) with 2000 kilometres. The boundaries of the three countries meet at a tripoint located at longitude 24º east. To the north-east is the United Republic of Tanzania with 338 kilometres. A tripoint of the boundaries of Zambia United Republic of Tanzania and Zambia is located latitude 9º 15". To the east are the Republic of Malawi with 837 kilometres and the Republic of Mozambique with 419 kilometres. To the south is the Republic of Zimbabwe with 797 kilometres. And in the south-west are the Republic of Botswana with less than two kilometres and the Republic of Namibia with 233 kilometres of the border. It has a thin projection of Namibian territory known as the Caprivi Strip to the Zambezi River. The boundaries of Botswana, Namibia, Zambia, and Zimbabwe meet at a point on the Zambezi River, referred to as a 'quadraphonic point'.

The capital city of the Republic of Zambia is Lusaka, located in the south-central part of the country. The larger part of the population is concentrated mainly around Lusaka in the south and the Copperbelt Province to the north.

Border Posts around Zambia

Angola: Kaleni, Chavuma, Kalabo, Shangombo, and Jimbe. There are many ungazetted entry points along the poorly defined boundary. Please note that there are no established border points with Angola yet.

Botswana: Kazungula Bridge across the Zambezi River at Katima Mulilo

Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC): Jimbe, Kaleni, Kipushi, Kasumbalesa, Sakania, Mokambo, Chembe, Mwenda (bridge across the Luapula River), Matanda, Kasenga, Kashiba (pontoon), Lukwesa, Chibondo, Kilwa by canoes, Nchelenge, Chienge, Chipungu, Lunchinda, Kaputa, Nsama, Mulilo. There are many ungazetted entry points along the poorly defined boundary from Lake Tanganyika to Mwinilunga District.

Malawi: Chitipa, Mafinga, Lundazi, Mchinji, Vubwi, and Chadiza. There are many ungazetted entries points along the poorly defined boundary from Nakonde to Chadiza.

Mozambique: Chanida, Cassatiza. There are many ungazetted entry points along the poorly defined boundary from Chadiza to the Luangwa River.

Namibia: Sesheke, Katima Mulilo (new bridge), Kalongola, and Ngwezi. There are many ungazetted entry points along the poorly defined boundary.

United Republic of Tanzania: Nakonde and Tunduma. There are many ungazetted entry points along the poorly defined boundary from Nakonde to Lake Tanganyika.

Zimbabwe: Victoria Falls Bridge, Chirundu Bridge, Kariba Dam. All borders are open from 0600 to 1800 except Victoria Falls, which stays open until 20.00. hours (Eight O'clock, in the evening).

Border posts: There are plans to introduce 24-hour services at most border entry points.

Zambia is largely made up of an elevated highland plateau, which rises in the east. Most of the country falls into a plateau region, which has a pleasant climate. It is a land of unspoilt forest, lush savannahs, and vast plains. The plateau is generally undulating and is broken here and there by isolated hills or hill ranges composed of the more resistant rock. The elevation there ranges from 915 to 1,520 metres (m) above sea level. Higher altitudes are attained in the Muchinga Plateau Range, a watershed separating the Chambeshi and Luapula drainage basins. The highest parts of the plateau are found in Northern Province in Mporokoso, Mpulungu, and Mbala Districts. It is also found in Mpika District of Muchinga Province, in Central Province around Serenje, and in Northwestern Province between Solwezi and Mwinilunga. In these areas, the elevation exceeds 1,525 metres and in a few places 1,650 metres. The highest elevations occur in the east, where the Nyika Plateau in Mafinga District on the Malawian border, are generally over about 2,000 metres above sea level. Rising to more than 2,164 metres is the Mafinga Hills. In the extreme northern areas, rising to plateau and mountain ranges, have a more usual tropical climate as they reach the shores of Lake Tanganyika. The general slope of the plateau that is towards the southwest is about 366 metres, The Zambezi River drains much of the western part of the country (where the elevation is 460--910 metres or 1,500--3,000 feet) and forms a large part of Zambia's southern boundary. The valley of the Zambezi River is a low-lying area, ranging from marshy coastal areas running the length of the western and southern borders, with a hotter and more humid climate. The drainage of the Zambezi turns eastwards to flow into the Indian Ocean.

Description of the National Flag

The Zambian flag was hoisted for the first time at midnight of 23 October 1964 to symbolise the birth of a new State and nation, its patriotism, and wealth. The flag has a green field with a panel of three vertical bands of red (hoist side), black, and orange, below a soaring orange eagle, on the outer edge of the flag. Green stands for the country's natural resources and vegetation, red symbolises the struggle for freedom, black stands for the people of Zambia, and orange is the country's mineral wealth. The eagle represents the people's ability to rise above the nation's problems.

The green background symbolises the natural resources that Zambia is blessed with. The soaring eagle symbolises the freedom the people of Zambia fought for and their ability to rise above challenges. The eagle was taken from the Coat of Arms of Northern Rhodesia. The first eagle appeared in 1927 as part of a Coat of Arms designed for Northern Rhodesia by the then Chief Secretary Sir Richard Goode. In the upper-right corner, there are three vertical stripes: red for the blood that was shed while fighting for independence, black for the people of Zambia, and orange for the large mineral wealth in Zambia. Ms Gabriel Elison, a graphic artist employed by the Government Printer, designed it. The national flag occupies an important role in building a sense of unity and loyalty to the nation.

Presidential Flag

The flag of the President of the Republic of Zambia is orange with the Coat of Arms in the centre, with the motto 'One Zambia, one nation'. The flag was adopted and described in the National Flag and Armorial Ensigns Act. Part two of the schedule gives the armorial ensigns the dimensions 1:1 on a flag of overall dimensions 3:2 and to the following colour specification: spectrum orange. It was adopted on 24 October 1964 and modified in 1996. The flag is flown wherever the president is.

Coat of Arms

The black-and-white wavy bars in the shield represent the Victoria Falls on the Zambezi River, one of the Seven Wonders of the World. The hoe and the pick represent the labours of the people in agriculture and mining. As in the flag, the eagle represents the freedom of the country and its ability to rise above its problems. The man and woman symbolise the African family. The man is dressed in a bush shirt and shorts, the clothes of a worker, and the woman in a traditional dress. The maize cob, the mine shaft head, and the zebra on the national colours (green) symbolise natural resources: agriculture, mineral resources, wildlife, tourism, and fertility of the land. The scroll carries the national motto, symbolising the unity of all the ethnic groups into one single united nation. The slogan was chosen to promote national unity, consciousness, and identity. Ms Gabriel Elison, an artist with the Government Printer, designed the Coat of Arms.

National Anthem

Stand and sing of Zambia, proud and free,

Land of work and joy in unity,

Victors in the struggle for the right,

We have won freedom's fight.

All one, strong and free,

Zambia, praise to thee

One land and one nation is our cry,

Dignity and peace 'neath Zambia's sky,

Like our noble eagle in its flight,

Zambia, praise to thee.

All one, strong and free.

Chorus (sung after third stanza)

Praise be to God

Praise be, praise be, praise be,

Bless our great nation

Zambia,

Free men we stand

Under the flag of our land

Zambia, praise to thee

All one, strong and free.

The National Anthem evokes a high sense of patriotism, national belonging, identity, and sovereignty. It is a unifying factor, a solemn prayer, praising God for the gift of land and its resources, a hymn in which national feelings, aspirations, and hopes are articulated. It brings pride to the Zambian people. In coming up with the lyrics of the national anthem, the government involved the wider Zambian community in a national anthem competition. Shortly before in 1964, the government invited participants to submit entries. Out of thousands of participants, the following were picked: Mr E S Musonda, Saint Francis Secondary School, Malole, Kasama; Mr J M S Lichilana, Lusaka; Mrs Lowe, Luanshya; Mr Siwandami, Luanshya; and Mrs Seal, Woodlands, Lusaka. Some of the sentiments, themes, and words expressed by these entrants formed the basis of the Zambian national anthem. It was put together by a team led Mankayi Enoch Sontonga, based on hymn 'Nkosi Sikelel'i Africa' ('God Bless Africa'), a popular African song adopted by the African National Congress of South Africa as a rallying song in the political struggle for the liberation of South Africa and the rest of the continent. The National Anthem is taught in schools in English, which is the official language, and in the seven major local languages: Bemba, Nyanja, Tonga. Lozi, Kaonde, Luvale, and Lunda.

Origin of the Name Zambia

Zambia takes its name from the Zambezi River, which rises in the north-west corner of the country, which drains all but a small northern part of the country and forms the southern between Botswana and Zimbabwe. The origin of the name is a subject of (intense) debate. It is believed that the late Arthur N. Wina, a prominent nationalist in the struggle for independence, first coined the term in a student poem at Munali Secondary School in the early 1950s. Credit also goes to the late Simon Kapwepwe, a fiery politician, who is reputed to have suggested the name at the formation of the radical and more militant Zambia African National Congress (ZANC), which broke away from the Northern Rhodesia African National Congress (ANC) in 1958. Whatever the origin, Zambia was the name adopted by the nationalist who fought for independence as the named it on the former British colony of Northern Rhodesia (1890 to 1964) upon its attainment of independence from Great Britain on 24 October 1964.

National independence holiday: 24 October 1964

Public Holidays:

1 January: New Year's Day

12 March: Youth Day

Second Friday of April: Good Friday

1 May: Labour Day

25 June: Africa Freedom day

First Monday of July: Heroes Day

First Tuesday of July: Unity Day

First Monday of August: Farmers Day

24 October: Independence Day

25 December: Christmas Day

The President of the Republic can designate any day as a public holiday to observe or commemorate an event of national importance.

Time: 24-hour clock (Greenwich mean time plus (+) 2 hours

Official language: English is widely used in government and business circles.

Business hours:

Weekdays: 0800/0900--1700/2000

Saturday: 0800--1300/1700. Some shops are opened on Sundays at 0800/0900--1300

Shopping: Cities and large towns have modern shopping centres, supermarkets, malls, and open-air markets. There are curios that include African carvings, pottery and copperware, beadwork and local gemstones, sold in the main cities and towns.

Shopping hours: 0800--2000 Monday to Saturday and Sundays, 0800--1300 or 1700 hours. Some supermarkets close around 2000 or 2100 hours.

Banks: There are many international and local banks as well as many bureaux de change. Hours of business vary from bank to bank, but most are open from 0815 to 1800/20.00, Mondays to Fridays, and 0815--1300 or later on Saturdays and Sundays. The changing of travellers' cheques at banks or exchange of foreign is accepted at banks and bureaux de changes. Travellers' cheques are normally exchanged at lower rates. The bureaus generally give better rates than the banks, especially for cash.

Unit of currency: The currency is the Zambian kwacha (ZMK). Each Kwacha has 100 ngwees. The denominations of the Kwacha are 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100. The Ngwees are in coins in the following denominations: 1, 5, 10, 20, 50, an K1.

Currency and banking: The decimal system of currency, issued in 1968, is based on the kwacha, consisting of 100 ngwee. The country's central bank is the Bank of Zambia (1964). Commercial, development, and foreign banks are widely represented.

Currency restrictions: The import or export of local currency is limited to the equivalent of 5,000. United States dollar (US$5,000) is subject to the declaration on arrival. The export of foreign currency is limited to the amount declared on import.

Credit cards: Hotels, restaurants, travel agencies, and the bigger supermarkets take credit cards such as MasterCard, American Express, and Visa cards. Banks will advance local currency against a credit card. Normally, travellers can withdraw money (in local currency) from ATMs using their ATM cards.

Exchange Rates

It is expressed in units of local currency per US dollar as determined by international market forces or by official fiat.

Zambian kwacha (ZMK) per US dollar: 7,50 (June 2015); 6.1 (2014 est.); 5.3 (2013 est); 5.4 (2013 est.); 5.1 (2012 est.); 5.1 (2012 est.)

4,860.7 (2011 est.); 4,797.1 (2010 est.); 4,797.1 (2010 est.); 5,046.1 (2009); 3,512.9 (2008); 10.90 to 11.30 (January 2016).

Weights and Measures: metric system

Electricity: 220volts, 50Hz. Plugs are three-pin square plugs. Power: At US$0.03--US$0.04 per kWh, Zambia

Telephones/Cell Phones: Country code: +260

Internet country code: zm

Natural Hazards: Periodic droughts, tropical rainstorms with floods causing huge destructions occur during the rainy seasons (November to April), and land degradation arising from soil erosion by wind and rain along the main rivers occur in various parts of the country. Along the large rivers and lakes, there are regular attacks on human beings by crocodiles and, occasionally, by hippopotami. On land, there is a serious human-lion conflict in some parts of the country.

Environmental Issues: Air pollution and resulting acid rain in the mineral extraction and refining region; on the Copperbelt, chemical runoff from factories along the Kafue River. Poaching seriously threatens rhinoceros, elephants, antelopes, and large cat populations. Deforestation, soil erosion, desertification. Lack of adequate water treatment presents human health risks.

Environment International Agreements: Party to biodiversity, climate change, climate change's Kyoto Protocol, desertification, endangered species, hazardous wastes, Law of the Sea, ozone layer protection, wetlands. Signed but not ratified: none of the selected agreements.

Clothing: Zambia has mild dry and cold seasons, and the dry hot days can get quite hot. Lightweight casual clothes can be worn all year round, with a jacket or jersey for early winter mornings and evenings.

Laundry: Laundries catering to dry-cleaning services are found in all cities and major towns. For low-budget travellers, there are no coin-operated Laundromats at all. In a number of motels and hotels, there are drip-dry services. In most places, one could hire someone to do the washing.

Dress at Business Meetings: For men, formal dress (suit and tie) or the national dress of the individual will be acceptable at business meetings. For women, dress, suit, or Chitenge (top and wrapper) material, or national dress.

Informal Dressing: Basic clothing is accepted including short- and long-sleeved shirts, T-shirts, Chitenge (top and wrapper materials), skirts, trousers, shorts, and dresses.

Chapter 2

Climate

Although Zambia lies within the tropics, its climate is modified by the altitude of the country and is generally favourable to human settlement and comfort. The movement of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) from the north to the south marks the seasonal pattern of rainfall. In January the ITCZ is in its southernmost position, and the rainy season is at its peak; by June it has moved north, and the weather is dry. Summer rains reduce the high temperatures that might be expected at this time.

Although lying within the tropic zone, much of Zambia enjoys a pleasant subtropical climate because of the high altitude. Temperatures are generally moderate and modified by altitude. Mean maximum temperatures exceed 35 degrees Celsius only in southern low-lying areas in October, most of the country being in the range 30-35 degrees Celsius. July, the coldest month, has mean minima of 5--10 degrees Celsius, over most of the country, but shows considerable variability. Mean daily maximum temperatures higher than 100ºF (38º C) occur only in the Luangwa Valley and the south-west. The coolest area is the high Nyika Plateau on the border with Malawi.

Climate

Although the major contrast is between the rainy season and the drier months, three seasons are identified as follows: November/December--April, wet (temperature range between 9º and 28º Celsius); May--August, cool and dry; August/September--November, hot and dry. In the valleys, the temperature reaches 35 degrees Celsius. The hottest month, January, has an average temperature of 21 degrees Celsius (70 degrees Fahrenheit).

The major climatic seasons are composed of the following:

(a). A warm wet season lasts from November until April with temperatures averaging between 26 and 32 degrees Celsius. The movement into Zambia of the moist Congo air mass from the north-west heralds the start of the rains, in the north usually in early November and towards the end of the month around Lusaka. The change from dry to wet conditions is transitional rather than abrupt. December and January are the wettest months. Rainfall is highest on the high plateau of the Northern, Luapula, and Northwestern provinces exceeding 1,300 millimetres per year mm (51 inches). Nearly all the rain falls between November and April, varying between 50.8 to 127 centimetres per month. The south, west, and the mid-Zambezi Valley are driest with annual mean values being less than 750 millimetres (30 inches). Cloud cover lowers maximum temperatures but also limits radiative heat loss at night so that minimum temperatures are kept relatively high. Relative humidity values are high, typically 95 per cent in early morning but declining to 60--70 per cent by midafternoon. Sunshine is surprisingly frequent, Lusaka averaging six hours of sunshine per day in January. Rainfall declines rapidly in April with the northward movement of the ITCZ.

Table 1: Rainfall and temperature figures over Zambia

Source: Zambia National Tourist Board

(b). The cool dry season lasts from April until August. The cool dry winter starts from May to August with temperatures ranging from 14 to 32 degrees Celsius. This is a traditional harvest period for most agricultural crops. The sun is overhead in the Northern Hemisphere, so temperatures are low. July, the coldest month, has mean minima of 5--10 degrees Celsius over most of the country but shows considerable variability. Clear skies allow maximum radiation and result in especially low temperatures on calm nights, with occasional ground frost occurring in sheltered valleys. And the hot dry season lasts from August until November. This is a period of rapidly rising temperatures just two months separate July, the coldest month. The average temperature in Lusaka during July, the coldest month of the year, is 16 degrees Celsius (61 degrees Fahrenheit).

(c). October is usually the hottest (although if the rains are delayed, November can be hotter). Highest temperatures of 31 degrees Celsius are recorded in the low-lying Luangwa Valley. Usually by mid-October, cooler oceanic air moves in, leading to increasing humidity and cloud formation. High temperatures and increasing humidity make this one of the least comfortable times of the year, although the first rains wash away dry-season dust.

From time to time, the country experiences periods of poor rains and droughts and periods of very heavy rains in parts of or the whole country. From 2000 to 2002, the country had a very severe drought, which affected harvests. The international community sent food aid. In the last two years, Zambia has recovered sufficiently and is exporting maize to a number of her neighbours.

Rainfall (concentrated in just five months) is highest over the Bangweulu basin at 1,500 millimetres (more than 60 inches) per annum and along the Congo-Zambezi watershed, declining southwards to the middle Zambezi Valley, which averages less than 730 millimetres. The Luangwa Valley is also drier than the surrounding plateau. Rainfall is less reliable in the drier regions, and failure of the rains in the south and south-west periodically brings famine to these areas.

Zambia's climate is conducive for many economic activities including agriculture. Annual rainfall decreases from an average of 1,000 millimetres in the north to an average of 600 millimetres in the south. The country is divided into three major agro-ecological zones or regions. Rainfall and soil quality differ among these zones. The fourteen harshest climatic conditions are found in zone 1 where rainfall averages less than 800 millimetres. Zone 1 is fortunately the smallest of Zambia's agro-ecological zones, accounting for only 12 per cent of the total land area. Zone II receives between 800 and 1000 millimetres of rainfall annually and constitutes 42 per cent of total land. Region III receives between 1,000 millimetres and 1,500 millimetres of rainfall annually and, at 46 per cent of the country's total land area, is the largest of the three regions.

The rainfall decreases from north to south. The 1000 millimetres isohyet corresponds approximately to the boundary separating the four northern provinces from the five southern provinces. This also approximately demarcates an important ecological boundary between the higher-rainfall and medium-rainfall Mambo zones. In the higher-rainfall areas, the traditional staple crop is cassava (although this is changing to maize), and there is no tradition of keeping cattle. In the medium-rainfall areas, the traditional crop is maize (although recent droughts and loss of cattle through disease have forced changes here too), and there is a long tradition of keeping cattle.

Chapter 3

Geology and Soils

Geologically, the oldest rocks in the country are volcanic and granites of the Bangweulu block in the north-east. These rocks are 2.5 billion years old and have been unaffected by weathering processes since Precambrian times. This old structure is partly covered by ancient sedimentary rocks, and together. They constitute the basement complex. Sedimentaries of the Katangan System (550 to 620 million years old) are extensive in the central areas, and mineralisation of these rocks is the basis of Zambia's mining industry. Later sedimentary rocks of the Karoo System filled rifted troughs in the plateau surface, some of which, as in the Luangwa and middle Zambezi valleys, have been partially re-excavated. Coal seams occur in Karoo rocks to the north of Lake Kariba. These structural troughs are ancient features. Lakes Mweru and Tanganyika occupy younger rifts in the north, as part of the East African Rift System. Karoo and older sedimentaries are also found in the west, buried under the predominantly sandy deposits of the Kalahari System. Over most of the country, ancient crystalline rocks are exposed, the product of prolonged erosion processes. In western Zambia, younger sandy deposits overlie them, relic of a once more extensive Kalahari Desert. In central and eastern parts of the country, down warping of the plateau surface forms swamp- or lake-filled depressions (e.g. Lake Bangweulu, the Luangwa Swamp); in more elevated regions, ridges and isolated hills made up of more resistant rocks punctuate otherwise smooth.

The soils of the plateau are generally of poor quality due to weathering and erosion. The fertility of the soils is inherently low. Where sufficient water is available and where reasonable fertilisation is applied with appropriate management, excellent crops may be harvested. Fertile alluvial soils are located in the floodplains. Much of the plateau is covered by the so-called sandveld soils, which have a sandy surface layer overlying clay subsoil, often with laterite (an iron-rich horizon).

Shifting cultivation is widespread, for more permanent cultivation soils need to be carefully managed. More fertile soils occur over limestone and basic rocks and have attracted commercial farming. Soils of the Kalahari Sands have little agricultural potential and are mainly under woodland. The black clay soils of some floodplains and swamp areas are highly fertile but difficult to cultivate, being waterlogged in the rainy. The main plateau areas have sandy clay soils of marginal agricultural value. These soils become more fertile in the lower plateau region. The river valleys are covered with fertile alluvial soils.

Chapter 4

Forests in Zambia

The forest reserve of Zambia is around 26,000 square miles (67,300 square kilometres). The major area of plantation for commercial timber is the Copperbelt, where there have been plantings of exotic softwoods. In the south-west region, there are extensive areas of Zambezi teak. A major concern is of forest destruction because of demands for charcoal in the towns. Charcoal is the most popular cooking fuel. The government has supported attempts to introduce energy-efficient charcoal stocks.

In Zambia, forests form the greater part of Zambia's vegetation. Zambia is covered with forests and woodlands with an estimated area of about 44.6 million hectares. Most of Zambia is high plateau with a flat or gently undulating terrain. Elevations average between about 1,100 and 1,400 metres (about 3,500 and 4,500 feet). Mountains in the north-east exceed 2,000 metres (6,600 feet). Because of her geographical position and high altitude and climatic conditions, Zambia has a varied subtropical vegetation. The country has a savannah-type vegetation, which covers most of the country. Vast tracks of land are forested. Zambia retains much of its natural forest and possesses a significant percentage of Africa's remaining virgin forest. Woodlands and forests of the savannah woodland zone cover about 66 per cent of the country. With annual rainfall of 900 to 1,400 millimetres (35 to 55 inches), Zambia's indigenous forests are highly diverse and include deciduous and leguminous fire-resistant trees including the hard teaks.

Zambia's forest area comprises forest reserves, game management areas, national parks, and customary lands. Forest reserves are gazetted forest areas directly under the control of government through the Forestry Department. Gazetted forests cover 9 per cent while 8 per cent is under national parks and game management areas. Zambia has a total of 481 protected forest areas, and 181 are national forests while 300 are local forests. In national forests, logging and collection of forest produce is regulated by the Forestry Department whereas local forest reserves are meant to serve the needs of the local people in the surrounding area. The government through the Forestry Department equally regulates the local forests. Forests also occur in game management areas, national parks, and customary lands. Zambia's indigenous forests are diverse, containing some 5,000 species of flowering plants, 88 species of mosses, and 146 species of ferns.

The country's vegetation is classified into four major categories. These are closed forests, open forests, territorial, and grasslands. The closed forests are limited in extent, covering only about 3.5 per cent of the country's land area. The open forests or savannah woodlands, which are the dominant vegetation type, occur in four types. These are Miombo, Kalahari, Mopane, and Munga woodlands. The most extensive are the Miombo Woodlands, covering over 42 per cent of the total land area.

Table 2: Vegetation Types in Zambia

Zambia is largely covered by forest covers. The forests cover about 61.3 per cent of the land mass. This comprises of 44.75 per cent natural forests, 9.84 per cent gazetted forest areas scattered all over Zambia, and 6.71 per cent covering game reserves and parks.¹² The vegetation is predominantly savannah (see tables 1--4). Zambia has a variety of ecosystems, which give rise to a rich biodiversity in terms of wildlife, plant, bird and fish species. The country's vegetation is classified into four major categories, namely, closed forests, open forests, termitaria, and grasslands. Zambian forests cover 60 per cent of the country. Zambia has a flora diversity of over 3,000 species with 40 per cent comprising shrubs and wood plants. Of these, 211 species are endemic to Zambia.

The vegetation is divided into seven broad types: Livunda, Itigi Miombo, Mopane, Chipya Munga Mutemwa and Kalahari, or Lusese. Sometimes these vegetation types are distinctly differentiated from others. In most cases, vegetation types merge with others across short, large, and extensive areas. Within each woodland and forest type are local grasses and scattered termitaria each with its characteristic plant covers.

1. Itigi Forest

Also known as Itigi thicket closely related to the Itigi thicket of Central Tanzania covers. It is two stories and very open and covers around 19,000,000 hectares (or two per cent of the forested land) and is characterised by such species as Bassea masaiensic, Baphia massainsis, and Combretum. It is confined to the low depressions between Lakes Tanganyika and Mweru Wantipa where conditions vary annual from being wet to very dry.¹⁵

2. Livunga (or Mavunga) Forest

It covers parts of Northwest Province in Mwinilunga and Zambezi districts and covers 1521,000 hectares (or 2 per cent of the forest covers). It's characterised by evergreen low forest in which Chryptosepalum pseudeotaxut (Luvunga) species is dominant. It is usually laced with lianes.

3. Acacia-Albizia Woodland

This woodland is found in the central and southern parts of the country. The forest is an almost park-like open woodland with a canopy 10--12 metres high and no or very sparse undergrowth---that is when not interfered with cultivation or grazing.

4. Miombo Woodland

Approximately 66 per cent of Zambia is covered with woodlands and dry forests. Miombo woodlands, widespread on the plateau, are by far the largest forest resource covering 35.5 million hectares. The Miombo woodland is a two-storied woodland with an open or lightly closed canopy of semi-evergreen trees 15--21 metres high dominated by species of Brachystegia, Isorbelinia, Julbernardia, and Marquesia macroura, which are preferred nectar sources for bees. The first two are of particular importance to the beekeeping industry in Zambia; however, in some patches, they are substituted by species of other genera. Table 2 lists some of the important tree species of the Miombo belt. Miombo is a vernacular or local name for Branchystegia boehmii in central and southern Tanzania and Zambia. The singular is Umuombo. The term is widely used to characterise woodlands in Tanzania, Zambia, Malawi, Mozambique, Southern Zaire, Zimbabwe, and Angola dominated by the species of Brachystegia, which, apart from B. boehmii, includes Albizia antunesiana, Anisophyllea boehmii, Brachystegia stipulata, Dalbergia nitidula, Syzygium guineense, subspecies Afromontanum is dominant, Entandrophragma delevoyi is one of the tallest of Zambia's indigenous trees. A few others, B. Spiciforms, B. longifolia and B. microphylla either alone or closely with Jubelrmardia and Isoberlinia species such as J. Paniculata J. globiflora. Albizia antunesiana, Burkea Africana erythropheum. Africananum paripari curatelifolia, Pericopsis angolensis, and Pterocarpus angolensis. These species are scattered in patches, varying in density concentration and area of Marquesia macroura (the evergreen forests) and Uapaca kirkiana. The Miombo woodland is two-storied woodland with an open or lightly closed canopy of semi-evergreen trees 15--21 metres high. The undergrowth consists of either a dense grass/suffrutex layer 0.6--1.3 metres high or a dense evergreen thicket 1.3--3.6 metres high. Suffrutices are a very marked feature of miombo woodland. Over time, numerous fires have modified the vegetation, from inaccessible thick primary forest, to produce the current woodlands. Some of the best of these forests, which are seriously threatened by clearing for cultivation, are found in the southern parts of Copperbelt Province.

According to various estimates, Miombo woodlands cover about 352 million hectares of land, which is between 48.2 and 58.2 per cent of Zambia's land mass. (Others give differing figures of 311,460,000 hectares, covering around 41.41 per cent of the forested area.) It occurs across plateaux and escarpments in all the provinces of Zambia with rainfall ranging from below 900 mm (dry areas) to 1,250 millimetres (wet areas) annually (see the map). The tree species grow in poor, shallow, and acidic soils and vary between 9 and 15 metres in weight. They usually grow from a light canopy of between 3 and 18 metres.

The Miombo woodlands are interspaced with Hyparrhenia and Tristacyatholloni grasses. In Northern, Luapula, and Copperbelt Provinces, the woodlands are interspaced with patches or evergreen or riparian (mushitu) forests located along some rivers and streams. Apart from the Pterocarpus angolensis and Uapaca, most of the tree species provide little or timber on the Copperbelt. Most of the Miombo species were exploited for wood used in the smelting of copper. The greatest part of the Miombo woodlands is its regrowth in varying stages from the young to the mature trees, The Miombo woodland is economically important in heavily populated urban areas for the supply of timber, poles, firewood, and charcoal. It is also the source of many non-wood forest products such as honey, medicines, mushrooms, caterpillars, and other edible insects.

5. Chipya

The Chipya woodlands are found in the areas between Lake Mweru in the north and Lake Bangweulu in the south and in the Copperbelt Province. The term ichipya comes from a Bemba wood meaning a place of areas in which a fire has burnt the grasses, dried leaves, dead wood, and the young samplings. It is therefore applied to a woodland in which various fire-hardy trees other than the Miombo species grow. The most common are Albizia anthunesiana, Burkea Africana Erythroipheum africanum, Parinori curate folia, Pericopsia angolensis, Pterocarpus angolensis, Uapaca kirkiana, acacia, Combretum afromesia, and Termilia. Some of these species are exploited for good timber.

6. Mopane

The Mopane woodland is a one-storied woodland with an open deciduous canopy 6--18 metres high. It covers an area of 38,700,000 hectares (or 5.15 per cent of the forested land). The woodland is a one-storied woodland dominated by Colophospermum mopane. It is pure or almost pure. It is also found mixed with Miombo at the bottom of escarpments and with Munga woodland at dambo edges. Scattered elements of the Munga woodland occur in places represented chiefly by Acacia nigrescens, Adansonia digitata, Combretum imberbe, Kirkia accuminata, and Lannea stuhlmannii. This woodland covers most of the hot and dry valleys of the Zambezi, Luano, middle Kafue, Mashi, and Luangwa Rivers. These areas receive between 500 and 750 millimetres of rain annually. The predominant species is the Colophospermum mopane, which is about one storey high. The species has adapted itself to the high temperatures and alkaline soils of the valley alluvia, which are normally flooded in varying degrees for shorter or longer periods every year and dry out almost completely during the dry season. Other species that appear in less dominant members are Kirkia accuminata stercula Africana and the baobab. This leaves fruits and seeds are eaten by human beings and livestock. More than 8 per cent of the country has been set aside as forest reserve or protected forest areas. Mopane is associated with fig or palm trees, a thorn bush zone, steppe vegetation, and shrubs and scattered small deciduous trees with an annual rainfall of 300 to 500 millimetres (12 to 20 inches). It has a thinner grass covering and a scattering of succulent and semi-succulent trees.

7. Munga (Thorny) Woodlands

This woodland, usually called savannah woodland, may be dense with a thicket understorey, open park-like woodland, one- to two-storied deciduous woodland with scattered or grouped emergents to 18 metres high or intermediate between the extremes covering 326,000 hectares (or 4.34 per cent of the forested land). Broad and dambos extending from the flats into Miombo area carry open Munga woodlands. This woodland is usually associated with flat topography characterised by red or brown clays and heavy sand clays. The most successful agricultural and cattle-ranching areas of Southern Province are situated in Munga woodlands. The vegetation is dominated by Acacia, Combretum, and Teminalia species. Others include Adansonia (the baobab), Albizia, Borassus palms, Burkea, and Kirkia. The undergrowth is semi-deciduous or deciduous and interspaced with tall grasses such as Branchiaria, Echinochloa, Eragrostis, and Hyparrhenia, which are patchy or very dense and thicket-like, 1.3--4.5 metres high.

8. Mutemwa or Baikiaea Forests

This forest woodland covers 683,000 hectares of land (about 0.91 per cent of the forested land). This is economically the most important vegetation type in Zambia. It is the source of the valuable teak or Zambezi redwoods (Baikiaea plurijuga) and Petrocarpus antunessi. The Baikiaea forest is almost restricted to the Kalahari Sands with a rainfall of 700 to 1,200 millimetres per annum, covering the districts of Sesheke, Senanga western Kalomo, and southern Namwala. The red teak has been exploited for railway sleepers from 1910.

9. Kalahari (Mushibe) Woodlands

The Kalahari woodland embraces all woodlands on Kalahari Sands. The vegetation is derived from the partial destruction of dry deciduous Baikiaea forest. It forms a regression from Baikiaea forest to suffrutex savannah to grassland on Kalahari Sands. Five stages are distinct in composition, namely, Guibourtia woodland, Burkea-Erythrophleum woodland, Burkea-Diplorhynchus scrub, Diplorhynchus scrub, and Parinari suffrutex savannah. The Kalahari woodland is widespread in the Western Province and western half of the Northwestern Province. It occurs in the southern and western fringe of the area covered by the Kalahari Sands. Zambezi teak or Mukusi (Baikiea plurijuga) occurs mostly in Sesheke, Senanga, and Kalomo Districts, as well as in the adjacent areas of neighbouring countries.

This forest covers 854,600 hectares of land (about 11.36 per cent of the forest cover). It occurs widely on Kalahari Sands in Western Province and western half of Northwestern Province. The vegetation of the Kalahari woodland is derived from the partial destruction of dry deciduous Baikiaea forest. Typical species are Guibourtia coleosperma, Burkea Africana diplorhynchus and Parinari, and Erythriphleum africanum, growing to a height of between 18 and 24 metres. The woodland type is of local importance for its stock Baikiaea plurijuga and Pterocarpus angolensis timber. The trees are interspaced with tall grass: Aristida, Brachiaria, Eragrostis, Hyperrhenia, and Setaria.

10. Lusese Woodland

This is found in Western Province and Namwala. It is dominated by Barkeo africana, Dialium engleanum, and species of Baikiaea and Colophospermum in Western Province. It thins into Diplorhynctus shrub savannah or into Loudetia grassland in the flooded areas of the Zambezi and the tributaries.

The Social Consequences of Deforestation