Fundamentals of Practical Biology: For Senior Secondary Schools and Colleges

By Margaret Ndukwe

This book has been designed to meet the requirements of the new Practical Biology curriculum for Senior Secondary Schools and Colleges. It is comprehensive, simplified and easy to use. The concepts are well developed and illustrated by clearly labelled diagrams, charts, tables and relevant tests to give the student hands on exercise. It is hoped that this book will assist candidates to get the idea of what is required of them in Practical Biology and Alternative to Practical Biology examinations.

• Language: English
• Publisher: Partridge Publishing Africa
• Release date: Apr 30, 2016
• ISBN: 9781482806342

Margaret Ndukwe

Margaret Ndukwe holds a BSc. in Biochemistry and a PGDE.She has a passion for education and has been teaching biology for almost a decade. About the book Fundamental Practical Biology is a book that focuses on the basic principles of practical biology for secondary schools and colleges. It is explict and simplified to enable students understand the fundermental concept of practical biology which will guarantee success in practical and Biology examination.

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Copyright © 2016 by Margaret Ndukwe.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be used or reproduced by any means, graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, taping or by any information storage retrieval system without the written permission of the author except in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical articles and reviews.

Because of the dynamic nature of the Internet, any web addresses or links contained in this book may have changed since publication and may no longer be valid. The views expressed in this work are solely those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views of the publisher, and the publisher hereby disclaims any responsibility for them.

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Contents

Preface

Acknowledgement

CHAPTER ONE

ANSWERING QUESTIONS IN PRACTICAL BIOLOGY

SPELLING

DIAGRAMS AND DRAWINGS

GUIDELINES TO DRAWING IN PRACTICAL BIOLOGY

LABELS

MAGNIFICATION

TYPES OF SECTIONS (PLAINS)

TYPES OF VIEWS/ ASPECTS

ANSWERING PRACTICAL QUESTIONS ON OBSERVATION

OBERVABLE STRUCTURAL SIMILARITIES

OBSERVABLE STRUCTURAL DIFFERENCES

IDENTIFICATION

CHAPTER TWO

VIRUS

BACTERIA

CLASIFICATION OF BACTERIA

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN BACTERIAL AND VIRAL CELL

SOME USES OF BACTERIA

PRACTICAL ACTIVITY ON BACTERIAL CELL

FUNGUS KINGDOM

PRACTICAL ACTIVITY ON FUNGAL CELL

KINGDOM PROTISTA

PHYLUM PORIFERA (SPONGES)

PHYLUM COELENTERATA (CNIDARIA)

PHYLUM: PLATYHELMINTHES

PHYLUM: NEMATODA

PHYLUM: ANNELIDA

PHYLUM ARTHROPODA

PHYLUM MOLLUSCA

PHYLUM ECHINODERMATA

PHYLUM CHORDATA

CLASS OSTEICHTHYES

CLASS CHONDRICHTHYES

CLASS AMPHIBIA

CLASS REPTILIA

CLASS AVES

CLASS: MAMMALIA

KINGDOM PLANTAE

DIVISION THALLOPHYTA

DIVISION BRYOPHYTA:

DIVISION MARCHANTIOPHYTA (HEPATOPHYTA)

DIVISION PTERIDOPHYTA (FERNS)

DIVISION ANGIOSPERMATOPHYTA (ANGIOSPERMOPHYTA / MAGNOLIOPHYTA)

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN DICOTYLEDONOUS AND

MONOCOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS

CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS

EVOLUTIONARY TREND IN LIVING ORGANISMS

CHAPTER THREE

CELL STRUCTURES AND CELL FUNCTIONS

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PLANT AND ANIMAL CELLS

SIMILARITIES BETWEEN PLANT AND ANIMAL CELLS

SOME SPECIALIZED CELLS AND THEIR STRUCTURAL ADAPTATION FOR SPECIFIC FUNCTIONS

LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE GROUP OF CELLS THAT FORM TISSUES

AND THOSE THAT FORM COLONIES

SUPPORTING TISSUES IN ANIMALS

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN EXOSKELETON AND ENDOSKELETON

THE SKELETAL SYSTEM

THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN

APPENDICULAR SKELETON

JOINTS

TEETH AND DENTITION IN MAMMALS

SUPPORTING TISSUES IN FLOWERING PLANTS

INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF FLOWERING PLANT

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF DICOTYLEDONOUS STEM AND DICOTYLEDONOUS ROOT

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF DICOTYLEDONOUS STEM AND MONOCOTYLEDONOUS STEM

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF DICOTYLEDONOUS

ROOT AND MONOCOTYLDONOUS ROOT

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF MONOCOTYLDONOUS STEM AND MONOCOTYLDONOUS ROOT

EXTERNAL STRUCTURE OF FLOWERING PLANTS

FUNCTIONS OF SOME EXTERNAL STRUCTURE OF FLOWERING PLANT

LEAF STRUCTURE, MORPHOLOGY AND FUNCTION

PARALLEL VENATION

NET VENATION

CLASS ACTIVITY

OBSERVABLE CHARACTERISTICS OF MANGO LEAF

CHAPTER FOUR

REPRODUCTION

MEIOSIS AND MITOSIS

CLONING

STEM CELL

REPRODUCTION IN INSECTS

REPRODUCTION IN VERTEBRATES

REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM OF FLOWERING PLANTS

STRUCTURES OF FLOWERS AND THEIR FUNCTION

DESCRIPTION OF DIFERENT FLOWERS

PLACENTATION

TYPES OF OVARIES

TYPES OF PISTLES

POLLINATION

TYPES OF POLLINATION

AGENTS OF POLLINATION

STRUCTURE OF FRUITS

CHANGES IN FLOWER AFTER FERTILIZATION

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN A FRUIT AND A SEED

CLASSIFICATION OF FRUITS

DISPERSAL OF FRUITS AND SEEDS

STRUCTURES OF SEEDS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

DICOTYLEDONOUS AND MONOCOTYLEDONOUS SEEDS

GERMINATION OF SEEDS

CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR GERMINATION

CHAPTER FIVE

ADAPTATION

ADAPTATION OF FISH TO LIFE IN AQUATIC ENVIRONMENT

ADAPTATION OF TOAD FOR PROTECTION FROM PREDATORS

ADAPTATION FOR MOVEMENT BY TOAD

ADAPTATION OF AGAMA LIZARD TO TERRESTRIAL HABITAT

ADAPTATION OF BIRDS TO TERRESTRIAL HABITAT

STRUCTURAL ADAPTATION OF BIRDS FOR FLIGHT

MODIFICATION OF BEAKS TO FEEDING HABITS

MODIFICATIONS OF BIRDS’ FEET TO FEEDING HABITS

ADAPTATION OF COCKROACH AGAINST PREDATION

PLANT STRUCTURAL ADAPTATION TO ITS HABITAT

OBSERVABLE FEATURES OF ADAPTATION OF SOME PLANTS TO THEIR HABITAT

CHAPTER SIX

VEGETATIVE REPRODUCTION

DIAGRAMS SHOWING STRUCTURAL FEATURES OF SOME ORGANS OF VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION AND FOOD STORAGE ORGANS

DESCRIPTION OF SOME ORGANS OF VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION

STRUCTURAL DIFFERENCES BETWEEN CACTUS STEM AND GINGER RHIZOME

CHAPTER SEVEN

EXPERIMENT ON SOME PHYSIOLOGICAL PROCESSES IN LIVING THINGS

DIFFUSION

EXPERIMENT 2: DIFFUSION IN WATER

EXPERIMENT 3: DIFFUSION IN GASES

OSMOSIS

EXPERIMENT 4: OSMOSIS IN NON-LIVING CELLS

EXPERIMENT 5: OSMOSIS IN LIVING CELLS

HAEMOLYSIS AND CRENATION

EXPERIMENT 6: EFFECT OF DISTILLED WATER ON MAMMALIAN RED BLOOD CELLS

PLASMOLYSIS

EXPERIMENT 7: TO DEMONSTRATE PLASMOLYSIS

PHOTOSYNTHESIS

ADAPTATION OF LEAF TO PHOTOSYNTHESIS

EXPERIMENT 8: TEST FOR STARCH IN A LEAF

EXPERIMENT 9: TO SHOW THAT LIGHT IS NECESSARY FOR PHOTOSYNTHESIS

EXPERIMENT 10: TO SHOW THAT CARBON (IV) OXIDE IS NECESSARY FOR PHOTOSYTHESIS

EXPERIMENT 11: TO SHOW THAT CHLOROPHYLL IS NECESSARY FOR PHOTOSYNTHESIS

EXPERIMENT 12: TO SHOW THAT OXYGEN IS GIVEN OFF DURING PHOTOSYNTHESIS

TRANSPORT IN PLANTS

EXPERIMENT 13: TO SHOW TRANSPORTATION OF WATER BY XYLEM

EXPERIMENT 14: TO SHOW TRANSPORTATION OF FOOD BY PHLOEM

TRANSPIRATION

EXPERIMENT 15: TO FIND OUT RATE OF TRANSPIRATION USING A POTOMETER

LIMITATION OF POTOMETER

EXPERIMENT 16: DEMONSTRATION OF TRANSPIRATION PULL

STOMATA AND LENTICEL

EXPERIMENT 17: TO SHOW THAT TRANSPIRATION TAKES PLACE THROUGH LEAVES OF PLANTS

EXPERIMENT 18: TO SHOW THAT TRANSPIRATION TAKES PLACE IN STOMATA

EXPERIMENT 19: TO SHOW THAT TRANSLOCATION TAKES PLACE IN PHLOEM AND SIEVE TUBES. (RINGING EXPERIMENT)

ROOT PRESSURE AND SUCTION PRESSURE

EXPERIMENT 20: TO DEMOSTRATE SUCTION PRESSURE

CHAPTER EIGHT

FOOD

TABLE SHOWING CLASSES, SOURCES, FUNCTIONS AND DEFICIENCY SYMPTOMS OF FOOD

TEST FOR CARBOHYDRATES

TEST FOR PROTEINS

TEST FOR FATS OR OILS

TABLE SUMMARING FOOD TESTS

CHAPTER NINE

USING A SECCHI DISK TO MEASURE TURBIDITY

USING AN ANEMOMETER TO MEASURE WIND SPEED

USING A BAROMETER TO FORECAST THE WEATHER

USING A WET AND DRY BULB HYGROMETER TO MEASURE RELATIVE HUMIDITY

USING A STANDARD RAIN GAUGE TO MEASURE RAINFALL

USING A WIND VANE TO DETERMINE WIND DIRECTION

USING A MINIMUM AND MAXIMUM THERMOMETER TO MEASURE TEMPERATURE

MATERIALS USED FOR COLLECTING SPECIMENS (ORGANISMS)

POPULATION STUDIES

EXPERIMENT ON SOIL

EXPERIMENT 21: TO SHOW WATER-RETAINING CAPACITY OF VARIOUS SAMPLES OF SOIL

EXPERIMENT 22: EXPERIMENT TO FIND OUT THE RATE OF DRAINAGE OF WATER THROUGH SOIL SAMPLES

EXPERIMENT 23: EXPERIMENT TO DEMOSTRATE DIFFERENCE IN CAPILLARITY BETWEEN SANDY, LOAMY AND CLAY SOILS

GRAPHS

MAGNIFYING INSTRUMENT

CHAPTER TEN

VARIATION

ORGANS IN THE BODY

RESPIRATORY STRUCTURES OF SOME ANIMALS

EXCRETORY STRUCTURES OF SOME ANIMALS

CHAPTER ELEVEN

ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF SOME PESTS/ INSECTS

HABITATS OF SOME ORGANISMS

MODE OF NUTRITION

FOOD CHAIN

FOOD WEB OR FOOD CYCLE

PYRAMID OF NUMBERS

INVERTED PYRAMID OF NUMBERS

PYRAMID OF ENERGY

PREFACE

This book has been designed to meet the requirements of the new Practical Biology curriculum for Senior Secondary Schools and Colleges. It is comprehensive, simplified and easy to use. The concepts are well developed and illustrated by clearly labelled diagrams, charts, tables and relevant tests to give students hand on exercise.

It is hoped that this book will assist candidates to get the idea of what is required of them in Practical Biology and Alternative to Practical Biology examinations.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Firstly, I thank God almighty for inspiring me to write this book. I am very grateful to all those who contributed to the success of this book. My gratitude goes to Mazi Opara John, and Paul Egede who reviewed and corrected this work. Very many thanks to Peter Ndukwe, Samuel Ndukwe, Damian Anyadike, Franklin Emmanuel and Abdulrahman Ibrahim; who devoted their time to drawing most of the diagrams in this text. My sincere gratitude goes to my parent- Mr David N. Ijioma and Mrs Ijeoma N. Ijioma, my siblings- James, John and Oluchi, Adole Peter, David Okoroafor, Christy Garba, Maximus Clement, Chief Ijioma Agwu, Hon. Justina Onwe (JP) and many others for their invaluable support.

CHAPTER ONE

ANSWERING QUESTIONS IN PRACTICAL BIOLOGY

Questions may be set on the following; uses, identification, similarities and differences, characteristics, drawing well-labelled diagrams, structures and functions of features of specimens provided. Always confine yourself to what you see and not what you imagine.

SPELLING

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In biology wrong spellings are unacceptable and this contributes to some of the reasons why many students fail biology. Many students tend to skip difficult biological terms while reading biology texts. To overcome difficulties in spelling biological terms, a student must properly pronounce and study them irrespective of how long or strange they may appear to be.

The first letter of a taxonomic name should start with a capital letter e.g., Aves, Mammalia, Angiospermophyta etc. When spelling kingdom, phylum, division, class and order of organisms ensure not to spell the noun form of the taxonomic name. Examples are shown below;

- Reptilian is a noun while Reptilia is a class

- Angiospermatophytes is a noun while Angiospermatophyta is a division

- Amphibian is a noun while Amphibia is a class

- Mammalian is a noun while Mammalia is a class, Etc.

DIAGRAMS AND DRAWINGS

A diagram is a simplified or idealized representation of an object. Diagrams are usually required in practical questions and they must show correct proportion and specific details. In all cases, diagrams must be large or drawn to the given specification. For example, for every diagram the following are scored; neatness of labels, parts labelled (labels must be spelt correctly), magnification, position of features observed on specimen, features shown, clarity of lines and size.

GUIDELINES TO DRAWING IN PRACTICAL BIOLOGY

In order to ensure that your diagram scores for clarity of lines use HB pencil sharpened to fine point. Never use a blunt pencil.

Image_002.png

Avoid wavy/woolly diagrams: the lines of your diagram should be single, thin and continuous without thickenings. Do not shade diagrams; rather use dots or stokes of line where necessary. This is illustrated in the diagram below.

Diagram Illustrating Clear Lines

Image3444.PNG

A Woolly Diagram of a Fish

Image3452.PNG

NOTE: in the diagram illustrating clear lines the scales are overlapping while the scales do not overlap in the woolly diagram.

LABELS

Label clearly and fully in pencil. Always use horizontal straight lines that are not broken and are parallel to the upper or lower border of the page. Lines must not cross each other, but should touch the part labelled. No label should fall within the diagram. Labels must be spelt correctly. It is incorrect to put an arrow at the end of guided lines. Guided lines touching more than one structure should be labelled in plural, e.g. Leaves, stems and whiskers. At least eight parts must be labelled except in a situation where there are less than eight parts. The diagram below shows poor labels.

Diagram Showing Wrongly Labelled T.S of Dicotyledonous Root

Image_005.png

MAGNIFICATION

Ensure to specify magnification (M.G.)

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EXAMPLE 1

Draw a labelled diagram; 10-12 cm long to show longitudinal section of specimen B (L.S. of a Mango Fruit). Calculate the magnification of the diagram, assuming the actual length of specimen B measures 5cm.

Diagram Showing the Longitudinal Section of a Mango Fruit

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The diagram above