Christianity: the One, the Many: What Christianity Might Have Been and Could Still Become Volume 1

By John F. Nash

What is Christianity? Who was Jesus Christ? What relevance does Christianity have in a post-Christian age? Why are there so many Christian sects, and what are the prospects for bringing them together? Does Christianity have a future? Am I a Christian? Are you? The two volumes of Christianity: the One, the Many, offer encouraging answers and options for modern spiritual seekers.
This first volume focuses on the life and teachings of Jesus and the evolution of Christianity over its first millennium. The institutional church of the Middle Ages imposed standardized beliefs and practices in place of the spontaneity and pluralism of apostolic times. But standardization was never complete, and alternative religious forms survived. The Gnostic, Celtic, Coptic, and Cathar Churches represent important variants. Finally, in the 11th century, mainstream Christianity split into western and eastern branches.
The organizational structure, clerical roles, doctrines and religious practices of the medieval church are studied in some detail, laying groundwork for the examination of western Christianity in Volume 2. The major variants are discussed, as well as the development of the Eastern Orthodox Churches through modern times. The exploration of religious forms that may be less familiar to western readers provides a glimpse into how Christianity as a whole might have developedand directions it could take in the future. Insertion of little-known facts helps bring the historical survey alive.
A masterpiece of research, insight and faith A must-read for believers and nonbelievers alike. Now I know theres a place in Christianity for me

• Language: English
• Publisher: Xlibris US
• Release date: Feb 14, 2008
• ISBN: 9781462825714

John F. Nash

Author Bio John Francis Nash earned his Ph.D. degree from the University of London before immigrating to the United States in the 1960s. After a varied career in science, business, and higher education, he “retired” to write and teach philosophy and religion. Dr. Nash has published 12 books and numerous articles in multiple fields. His most recent books were Quest for the Soul and The Soul and its Destiny. Recent articles discussed the Trinity, spiritual healing, and religious ritual. Nash founded and serves as editor of the international Esoteric Quarterly. He has lectured and conducted workshops in the United States and Europe.

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Copyright © 2007 by John F. Nash.

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Contents

Introduction

Part I

Chapter 1

Chapter 2

Chapter 3

Chapter 4

Part II

Chapter 5

Chapter 6

Chapter 7

Chapter 8

Part III

Chapter 9

Chapter 10

Chapter 11

Chapter 12

Introduction

The Book’s Objectives

What is Christianity? Who was Jesus Christ? What relevance does Christianity have in a post-Christian age? Why are there so many Christian sects, and what are the prospects for healing the divisions among them? Does Christianity have a future? Can I be a Christian and not go to church? Am I a Christian? Are you? We shall try to find out in these two volumes.

Christianity: the One, the Many honors the juxtaposition of diversity and unity in Christianity. One of its objectives is to provide an interpretive history of Christianity that conveys the richness of the Christian experience. We explore how diversity developed, why so many forms of Christianity evolved from its simple roots, and what they have contributed individually and collectively. Considerable effort has been made to make this a balanced history, neither minimizing Christianity’s failures nor undervaluing its successes. At the same time we shall not lose track of the totality of the Christian experience, comfortably and joyfully transcending the complex pattern of denominations, sects and persuasions that we see around us. The other objective, no less important, is to present a bold new vision of Christianity to inspire modern seekers and clarify their religious options. It is a vision based on deep faith, a reverence for the best of sacred tradition, and the belief that religion must operate in the real world. The combined goal is to offer a new appreciation of what Christianity has been in the past and what it can offer today and tomorrow.

A good historical review must cover events, ideas and developments of lasting consequence, in this case the great issues of Christian doctrine, moral teachings, and worship; bishops, saints and evangelists; orthodox and heretical sects; victorious crusades and defeats. It should explore the broad diversity of beliefs, observances, attitudes and behavior; the turmoil, disagreements and reconciliations among competing factions; the episodes of glory, tragedy, comedy, rejoicing and sadness. A good history of Christianity should examine the mysteries, rituals, and symbols; the insights of its mystics; and the attainments of its great scholars. On the other hand, to allow history to degenerate into a mere catalog of facts is not only boring; it is to deny its very essence.

History—and nowhere is that more pertinent than in religious history—can never be divorced from the beliefs, statements, actions (or inaction) of the people who either made history or suffered from it. History should allow those people to live again—even in a few paragraphs here and there—should accord them immortality, regardless of where they might be spending the afterlife. History must also come alive through commentary and reflection; and through the interjection of interesting tidbits, anecdotes, even bizarre events. In a history of Christianity they help us understand what it was like to be a Christian and how Christians viewed their faith at different periods of history. Inclusion of little-known facts—or widely believed fictions—not only relieves tedium but provides insights into what the larger events mean. For example, how many people know that

• according to an early legend the child Jesus made clay birds that flew away?

• Pentecostals would have felt at home in many congregations in the early church? Even the apostle Paul boasted of speaking in tongues.

• despite Paul’s contribution to Christianity, some of his teachings were rejected by the early church? And because his work was so visible, efforts had to be made to build up Peter’s stature in the church lest he be eclipsed.

• in the second century CE the Third Person of the Trinity was identified as the feminine Sophia?

• the doctrine of Mary’s virginity owes more to early Christian misogyny than to scripture?

• the identification of Satan with Lucifer originated from the dubious translation of a passage in Isaiah that described the defeat of a Babylonian king? Virtually everything we now know of Satan came from medieval fiction.

• church father Augustine, darling of the Protestant reformers, was never considered an important authority in the Eastern Orthodox churches? Some Orthodox theologians even considered him a heretic.

• the early Celtic church in Ireland questioned whether bishops served any useful function?

• the Roman church resorted to genocide to suppress the Cathar heresy in southern France?

• Anselm of Canterbury offered a proof for the existence of God, but he acknowledged that it would only convince those who already believed?

• the great theologian Thomas Aquinas is believed to have written an alchemical text? Isaac Newton, greatest mathematical scientist of the 17th century, even set up an alchemical laboratory on the ground of Trinity College Cambridge. Ironically he was a Unitarian.

• according to a medieval legend a woman was once elected pope, but her gender was revealed when she gave birth on a Roman street? Unfortunately it is only a legend.

• congregational singing was banned in Protestant Zurich in the 16th century on the grounds that it distracted attention from the sermon?

• tent revivals, the staple of American Evangelicalism, were first held in 17th-century Scotland and Northern Ireland?

• the antipope Gregory XVII canonized Christopher Columbus—and Spanish dictator General Franco?

• Jesuit priest Pierre Teilhard de Chardin not only embraced Darwin’s theory of evolution but rejoiced at humanity’s hominization?

• the rapture, so prominent in Evangelical fundamentalist beliefs, is a relatively new concept? It was first proposed by a disaffected Irish priest in the 19th century.

• claims that the United States was founded on Christian principles have to confront the reality that Deism was the prevailing faith of the founding fathers? Thomas Jefferson is quoted as saying: I do not find in orthodox Christianity one redeeming feature.

• Patriarch Bartholomew of Constantinople earned the nickname green patriarch for his efforts to promote environmental awareness?

Readers who scored 100 percent on the quiz are free to skip to the latter part of Volume 2 where we discuss contemporary Christianity and offer the vision for the future. For everyone else, let us trace the ideas, events and movements that have defined Christianity over the last 2,000 years. Christianity’s history includes accomplishments, insights and sacrifices that set new standards of human potential; endless arguments over theological and moral irrelevancies; and some of the most dastardly crimes ever committed by misplaced zeal, hatred, arrogance and ambition. As we trace this stirring journey—and consider our own religious options—Christianity will become more human, more believable, and more accessible.

Before we begin, we must address some important questions. What purpose does a book on Christianity serve in an age when increasing numbers of people are turning away from traditional religious formats? Concepts like doctrine and absolute truth, threats of eternal damnation, submission to religious authority, loyalty to a family religion, and dependence on a church to meet spiritual needs all seem increasingly anachronistic. But if traditional religion is in decline, spirituality certainly is not; people are simply seeking fellowship, comfort, inspiration and self-actualization elsewhere. Some consider themselves Christians but are experimenting with new religious formats, while others are inspired by the message, or identify with the values of Jesus Christ but shun sectarian labels. Still others are drawn to alternative spiritual traditions like Buddhism, the Qabalah, indigenous religions, or earth religions.

To whom is this book addressed? One of the Rosicrucian Manifestos, published in the early 17th century, was addressed to the erudite of Europe; the 19th-century German theologian Friedrich Schleiermacher addressed a book to the cultural despisers of religion;¹ and at least one book on Jesus is targeted at the non-religious.² All of those groups would certainly be encouraged to read the present book, though it is also addressed to people who do not fit into such categories.

Christianity: the One, the Many is addressed to the average intelligent reader. It is written in a narrative style intended to encourage comprehension rather than—so common in academic circles—to intimidate critics. The book is addressed to readers whose attitudes to Christianity cover a broad spectrum. It should serve as a useful resource for committed Christians who want to learn more about their faith, and an abundance of information is presented. It should also appeal to those whose interest is more detached or whose contact with Christianity is primarily cultural. For readers of all persuasions, the book provides a wealth of interesting facts and discussion. The goal is to present Christianity in a refreshing way and, where appropriate, to help guide religious choices. Whether readers find a spiritual home in the mainstream, on the fringes, or outside Christianity, this book should help them in their quest. The book is not intended to replace standard factual works like Philip Schaff’s History of the Christian Church³ and Williston Walker’s similarly titled book⁴ or commentaries like Paul Johnson’s A History of Christianity.⁵ But it should be of interest to students of the history of religion. Numerous endnotes are intended to meet research needs as well as to provide interesting asides and trivia.

History and Future of Christianity

Early Christians

S oon after Pentecost, groups of people began to meet to share experiences and exchange stories about an itinerant teacher named Jesus who had lived in Palestine a few years earlier. That Jewish teacher told inspiring parables, performed miracles, stressed compassion over religious legalism, reached out to marginalized groups, and gathered a band of devoted followers. He offered those who believed in him the prospect of new life, either on earth or in heaven. Unfortunately Jesus’ message was misinterpreted by the Roman authorities, and like many others he was charged with insurgency and executed. He was raised from the dead and seen on several occasions before ascending to heaven to be with his father. People called him the Messiah, the Christ, the Redeemer, the son of God.

Those who listened to the stories felt strong mutual bonds. The groups became tightly knit, intimate and supportive. Initiation into a community was by confession of faith and baptism. Past sins were washed away and new life began; members prayed together and participated in a communal meal of Thanksgiving. They came to be called Christians.

The intimacy of the Christian communities resulted in part from the threat of arrest. For 300 years Christianity was a persecuted minority; at any time members could be rounded up and put to death in the most gruesome ways. One reason for the danger was that appellations like son of God were already claimed by the emperor, and to apply them to anyone else was treasonous. Curiously though, persecution seemed to strengthen their resolve. Something happened within people’s hearts and souls, and collectively within the communities, to make them turn away from distraught families and friends to face death without fear. So firm was their faith, so profound their inner transformation, that instead of dreading martyrdom they actually seemed to welcome it. The experience of Jesus empowered the early Christians to do extraordinary things.

Some early Christians wrote about their experiences. Their writings had evangelical value and were circulated and probably read aloud by the few literate people in the communities. The texts offered powerful testimonies to the life, message, death, and continued presence of Jesus Christ. They expressed the belief that the son of God had incarnated as a man and conquered death in order to offer believers a place in his new kingdom. In due course some of the texts were endorsed by religious leaders and compiled into the New Testament.

Christians traditionally have affirmed that the Old and New Testaments represent divine revelation: the inspired word of God. An alternative view is that scripture captures the experience of the Divine through imagery, symbolism, metaphor and myth. Still another view is that the New Testament was created by early Christians to establish identity, explain the origins of their religion, and communicate shared values.⁶ Whatever opinion we hold, we can affirm that the Bible is a sacred text to be read with the expectation of inspiration and personal revelation. It may speak to different people in different ways; it may speak to all of us on multiple levels.

In addition to the texts incorporated into the New Testament, other writings circulated for a while and then were lost or destroyed. Only recently have some of those extra-canonical texts come to light. They help us understand the diverse perspectives of early Christians and the richness of their writings. Meanwhile, we are challenged to consider whether the texts were inspired and what credibility they have. In Chapter 2 we shall evaluate the various perspectives on canonical and extra-canonical scripture.

One and Many

What little we know of Christianity’s development from the second century onward is usually the official history, a compelling story of how the church was founded by a small but intrepid band of apostles united in faith under Peter’s leadership. From those humble but potent beginnings, the church developed into a worldwide institution with authority to preach the gospel and bring people of all nations to salvation through Jesus Christ. Great martyrs, popes, bishops, theologians, reformers, saints, believers, soldiers, and crusading armies changed the course of history. Facing incredible odds, they swept to victory carrying the banner of Christ ahead of their columns. We marched with them, the words of Sabine Baring-Gould’s hymn ringing in our ears:

Like a mighty army moves the church of God; / Brothers, we are treading where the saints have trod. / We are not divided, all one body we, / One in hope and doctrine, one in charity. What the saints established that I hold for true. / What the saints believèd, that I believe too.

Long as earth endureth, men the faith will hold, / Kingdoms, nations, empires, in destruction rolled.⁷

The church’s remarkable growth, the official history continues, was the unfoldment of divine will: the preordained outcome of Christ’s charge to the apostles—the working out of a new covenant, superseding Yahweh’s contract with the people of Israel. Christians were the new chosen race. Most important, the church was Christianity.

We now recognize that the official history was considerably oversimplified. It was written to serve the purposes of the institutional church in its struggle for the hearts and minds of early Christians. The fourth-century bishop of Caesarea, Eusebius, confessed: [W]e shall introduce into this history in general only those events which may be useful first to ourselves and afterwards to posterity.⁸ History books are always written by the victors. In this case the victors also selected and compiled the scriptures on which their legitimacy rested; it was no accident that the New Testament supported official church history.

The oversimplified picture of Christianity’s origins, together with the leaders’ strong convictions, contributed to the church’s success. Unswerving commitment to its vision gave people confidence and brought stability to an uncertain world. Encouraged by the emperor Constantine, the institutional church was able to impose its vision of Christianity throughout the empire. The official historians were forced to acknowledge that dissent, heresy and schisms eventually destroyed the pristine unity of the apostolic church. They attributed those disagreeable outcomes to ignorance, fading of the original vision, and attempts by wicked people to sabotage Christ’s mission on earth.

In fact Christianity never was a single religious tradition. Even from the time of the apostles it was a complex of interacting traditions, distinguished by different assumptions, beliefs, practices and cultures. Nascent Christianity consisted of a number of groups that responded to Jesus Christ in different ways and that held different visions of the new religion. The form Christianity took by late antiquity was partly fortuitous and partly the outcome of determined, sometimes vicious, infighting. In the competition for supremacy, stronger groups suppressed weaker ones until a single faction controlled Christianity in much of the civilized world. That is how the institutional church came into being. The church held a position of dominance until the end of the first millennium. Then it began to fragment into denominations and sects that we still recognize today.

Christianity’s fragmentation had several internal and external causes. A major internal cause was the very richness of the life, death and resurrection of Jesus Christ. People’s responses were too complex to be forced into a single mold, and efforts to do so were doomed to fail. The standardization of Christianity created a semblance of unity and uniformity, but differences smoldered below the surface, waiting to be fanned into flames. Standardization constrained individual experience, and that constraint was resented. Many people wanted to honor their own powerful experiences. They wanted to express their faith in new ways or return to what they believed were the preferable ways of earlier times. Institutional Christianity, with its heavy hand of centralized authority, became increasingly burdensome. Eventually the desire to throw off the yoke of authority became unstoppable.

Another internal cause of fragmentation was the reality that people are not all at the same level of spiritual development. We are all on a spiritual journey, but not all of us are approaching the finish line. Institutional Christianity offered the ministry and religious orders to those who aspired to greater things. Otherwise, everyone was treated alike and expected to meet the same standards. That attitude was unrealistic. Some people sought religious experiences that respected rather than overwhelmed their abilities; others wanted greater challenge without commitment to the clerical or monastic life.

A major external cause of fragmentation was the continually evolving political, ideological, social, economic and technological environment in which the church strove to accomplish its mission. Today’s world is very different from what it was at the end of the first millennium, and different again from what it had been in the first century CE. Christianity also faced specific threats like the rise of Islam; the Black Death; colonial expansion into the Americas, Africa and Asia; the scientific revolution; the labor movement and rise of socialism; the world wars of the 20th century; the development of weapons of mass destruction; and the growth of modern entertainment, news and information media. Christianity continually had to redefine itself. But redefinition is always heart-wrenching, and disagreements inevitably arose over what adaptations could be tolerated and how they should be implemented. Meanwhile, people’s needs, expectations, aspirations, and understanding of reality continued to evolve.

Branches of the Vine

The various Christian traditions are branches of the vine rooted in Jesus Christ.⁹ As they wound their way through history, some branches withered, but a surprising number still bloom today; few extinctions are recorded on Christianity’s evolutionary tree. Some branches left especially large imprints on history. Catholics, Protestants, and Eastern Orthodox Christians make up the great majority of people in the world who identify themselves as Christian.¹⁰

The Church of Rome and the Eastern Orthodox Churches—the Latin and Greek churches—separated in the 11th century over matters of doctrine and authority, each claiming to be the legitimate successor of the apostolic church. They had already developed distinct identities, and they continued to change thereafter. Eastern Orthodoxy may have preserved the mystery and sacredness of early Christianity more faithfully; but it was strongly identified with the culture of the Byzantine Empire, and later it became entangled in nationalism. The Church of Rome was heavily influenced by the intellectual movements of the High Middle Ages and sacrificed some of its early mystery to the rational understanding of its faith. Also, the Latin Church was built around the monarchical institution of the papacy, and when papal power declined its own authority was called into question.

The Reformation of the 16th century produced the Lutheran, Calvinist and Anglican Churches. The Lutheran and Anglican Churches remained relatively close to their Catholic origins, while Calvinists chose a more radical path, earning the title Reformed Church. The Calvinist model spread rapidly, producing, among other groups, the French Huguenots and the Presbyterians of Scotland and North America. The forces behind the Reformation continued to play out, and new Protestant denominations emerged, including the Baptists and Methodists for whom piety and evangelism were more important than ritual and doctrine. Protestantism fragmented further, and hundreds or thousands of sects now profess to represent the true Protestant spirit.¹¹ Significant developments of the last 100 years have been the charismatic movement, the rapid growth of Evangelical Christianity in the Third World, the growth of fundamentalism in the United States, the popularity of nondenominational megachurches, and the impact of radio and television ministries.

Some traditions left smaller imprints on history. Gnosticism appealed to the mystics and intellectuals of early Christianity. Efforts by the emerging institutional church to suppress it were only partially successful, and forms of Gnosticism survived in eastern Europe, ready to spread westward in the 10th century to seed the Cathar movement in France. The Celtic church of the Atlantic seaboard developed around the clan structure and the strong bonds with nature characteristic of Celtic/Druid civilization. Although Celtic Christianity fell victim to encroachment by the Roman church, it had a lasting influence on western Christianity. The Church of India, believed to have been founded by the apostle Thomas, flourished in an environment still further removed from imperial Rome. The Assyrian and Oriental churches took distinct paths as the result of doctrinal disagreements in the fifth century. Despite concerted opposition from mainstream Christianity and later pressure from Islam, traces of those eastern breakaway faiths survive to the present.

The forces that produced the major Protestant denominations gave rise to innovative forms of Christianity. The Friends of God, the Beguines, and the Hussites of Moravia foreshadowed the Reformation, and the Radical Spiritualists, Pietists, Quakers, Shakers and Universalists emerged in its wake. They reacted against ecclesiastical authority and to some degree against the patriarchal style of institutional Christianity. The last few centuries have witnessed the emergence or growth of Deism, Unitarianism, esoteric Christianity, and most recently progressive Christianity.¹² Numerically small movements have made, and continue to make, disproportionately important contributions to the story of Christianity.

Mainstream Christianity has experienced great changes since the Reformation. Most conspicuous is the emergence of the polar opposites of liberal Protestantism and Evangelical fundamentalism. The former sought to accommodate the intellectual skepticism of the 18th and 19th centuries; it also embraced modern scriptural criticism. It views God, Jesus, and the church in secularized, humanistic terms. The latter has taken a defensive and intolerant posture, tenaciously holding beliefs and social values that have lost broad credibility in the modern world. Meanwhile Catholicism is slowly emerging from its own Counter-Reformation fundamentalism and has changed, particularly at the congregational level. Major denominations are declining in influence and losing members, but newer forms of Christianity are thriving. The late 20th and early 21st centuries are witnessing unprecedented spontaneity and experimentation. Top-down forms of institutional Christianity are giving way to bottom-up, grassroots forms. In important ways we are recapturing the fluidity of the first Christian communities. The spiritual quest is a strong one, and people are searching for ways to express and share their experiences, just as they did in the early church.

In this book we affirm that Jesus Christ was the focus of a divine impulse whose energy and revelation changed the course of human history and set in motion a long-term expansion of human consciousness. The impulse continues to spread out like ripples on a pond, but it is not out of the question that, at some point in the future, they will converge again toward a future synthesis. In a system as complex and organic as Christianity, entropy will not necessarily drive us inexorably toward disintegration and meaninglessness. After all, the love of Christ is a cohesive force. Already we are seeing a decline in sectarian polemic and an increase in ecumenical outreach. In some cases ecumenical contacts have produced denominational mergers; more generally they have nurtured mutual understanding. Future synthesis may lie not in organizational union but in a pervasive sense of sacred communion. Denominations and other groups can retain distinct identities but be united in expressing the message of Christ.

The Ekklesia and the Paths

A major objective of this book is to step aside from the tangled branches of the vine to offer a new vision of Christianity that honors the joyful coexistence of unity and diversity. We shall try to discover what Christianity might have been—and could still become.

We shall look for a higher spiritual reality that transcends Christianity’s sectarian divisions: one that can rightly be called the body of Christ.¹³ That reality is the Church, as distinct from the many churches with which we are familiar. Eastern Orthodox theologians use the Greek word Ekklesia to refer to the transcendent Christianity, even when writing in English, and we shall do the same. The Ekklesia is an archetype expressing the totality of the Christian experience—the totality of responses to Christ. Our exploration of the Ekklesia will lead to insights into what defines a Christian. Without dismissing the importance of faith we shall see that actions must take precedence over beliefs. Jesus embraced people marginalized by the Jewish establishment, and our definition must also be broad and inclusive; we must be ready to include people not always acknowledged to be Christian. At the same time we must be ready to accept that, throughout 2,000 years of history, certain groups of people—including churchmen—may have forfeited the right to be called Christian.

The Ekklesia is not amorphous; Christianity is many as well as one. We could define its structure based of the customary Catholic, Orthodox and Protestant branches of Christianity and then subdivide Protestants into Lutherans, Anglicans, Calvinists, Baptists, Pentecostals, and so forth. But to do so would only perpetuate sectarianism, while ignoring the diversity within each denomination. It would also overlook the new forms of Christianity that are emerging. Alternatively we could divide the Ekklesia into conservative, traditional, fundamentalist, charismatic, esoteric, liberal and progressive factions. But factionalism divides rather than enriches the Ekklesia; moreover, we shall see that those factional categories are ambiguous.

Instead, we shall define the structure of the Ekklesia in terms of seven spiritual paths that express Christ’s message in different ways. The paths characterize the diversity in Christianity in terms of what people do, rather than what they believe; and, hopefully, they could never be institutionalized into competing denominations or factions. The paths are more or less equally divided in intent between our relationship to God and our relationship to one another:

• Devotion: the approach to God through prayer, worship, artistic expression, and mysticism

• Ceremony: the approach to God through ritual, liturgy, and the sacraments

• Knowledge: the approach to God through the pursuit and sharing of truth

• Service: the approach to God through helping our neighbor and making the world a better place

• Healing: the approach to God through alleviating pain and nurturing the fullness of life

• Activism: the approach to God through the pursuit of peace and justice

• Renunciation: the approach to God through self-discipline, the reordering of priorities, and surrender to the divine will.

Like the Ekklesia, the seven paths are archetypal in nature, and the labels: Devotion, Ceremony, and so forth, have larger meanings than they might have in everyday usage. As a reminder of those larger meanings, the labels will be capitalized and in a few cases italicized.

The concept of multiple spiritual paths within Christianity is not new, and we shall show how outstanding Christians in history exemplified one or another; but they are presented here in a new way. The paths are not mutually exclusive; nor would they be expected to be, after all the Ekklesia is a unity. Each of us may be drawn to more than one path—perhaps to all of them, although that might dilute too much the experiences they can offer. In any event, to study the paths will help us make choices and perhaps will give direction to our spiritual journeys.

The seven paths represent ideals, and we have the opportunity to express them to the extent of our ability and aspiration. As noted earlier, Christians are not all at the same point of spiritual attainment. Most of us pale in attainment compared with the great saints, though we may be farther along than others. We are grateful for the help provided by those ahead of us, and we offer a helping hand to those who may be trailing behind. There must be a place in the Ekklesia for all of us; and Christianity must nurture sincere people at each level of ability, just as educational systems offer programs of various levels of difficulty. As we trace the history of Christianity, we shall see that some traditions catered to the masses of ordinary people while others provided opportunities for people who sought greater challenges. On one or other of the seven paths, and at some level of spiritual challenge, each of us can find our place in the Ekklesia.

We may have been turned off by exponents of Christianity who saw only a small part but arrogantly claimed to speak for the whole—or spoke in ways that we found morally or intellectually unacceptable. But the larger Christianity has something better to offer. Christ’s message is not expressed by the defense of failed dogma, the use of scripture as a polemical weapon, or the hellfire sermon. It is expressed in the vastness of nature or the stillness within us; through humility, compassion, and healing relationships; in reaching out to those who are hurting; in the willingness to stand up and be counted in the face of injustice; in the honest search for truth, wherever it may lead.

The present author cannot tell readers where they may find a spiritual home or a spiritual quest. The words of the American spiritual: We must walk this lonesome valley, We have to walk it by ourselves are partly true; the choices rest with each one of us. On the other hand, countless others have walked through the valley and have discovered a connection with Jesus Christ, and many walk with us now, sharing experiences and encouraging us on our way. This book is offered as a useful roadmap. The journey will be an exciting one, just as writing the book—and the years of searching that preceded it—were for the author.

Outline of the Book

T his book’s presentation of the history of Christianity is generally chronological, though freedom is taken to move backward and forward in time to preserve coherence in the discussion of traditions that extend over many centuries. Storylines inevitably overlap, and in a few cases the same period of history is covered from different perspectives. Also, although the book is about Christianity, it recognizes that religious events do not occur in a vacuum. In order to understand the evolution of the various Christian traditions we must consider their political and social contexts, and how those contexts changed over time. Contextual discussions are not belabored, but minimal background information is provided to make the religious issues comprehensible. Three historical periods are particularly significant in that regard. The first is the period of Christianity’s beginnings; the second spans the high Middle Ages and Renaissance; and the third is the period of scientific, intellectual and social movements from the 17th century to the present. Paying due attention to political and social developments also helps ensure that the vision of a new Christianity relates to the world as it is and not to an unattainable utopia.

Volume 1

Part I: The Birth of Christianity, explores the emergence of Jesus Christ onto the world stage and the first Christians’ response to his life and message. We start with a very brief examination of the political, social, religious and intellectual environment of the early centuries. Then we turn to what we know of Jesus, and how we know it. We review what Christian writings and tradition have said about Jesus Christ and his ministry, examining areas where disagreement exists as well as areas of broad consensus. Chapter 4, which concludes Part I, studies the exciting period of Christianity’s formation, when spontaneity and fluidity were the norm, and any of several forms of the new religion could have gained ascendancy. This is a pivotal chapter for understanding the later diversity in Christianity.

Part II: Medieval Christianity, studies the catholic church that seized the political initiative in late antiquity and dominated Christianity for many centuries. The medieval church is discussed in detail to provide a baseline from which the characteristics of parallel or later traditions can be measured. The four chapters in Part II cover the church’s organizational structure, the roles of the clergy and religious orders, the formulation of doctrine, and the evolution of the forms of worship that have graced Christianity. Institutional Christianity’s steady rise in political power is a major theme of the medieval period. But we also pay tribute to the success of the monastic system and the great flowering of sacred architecture, art and music which continued through the Renaissance and beyond.

Part III: Variations on a Theme, reflects on early alternatives to the catholicity of the medieval church. Topics include Gnosticism in its various forms; the distinctive Celtic and the Cathar churches of western Europe; Arianism, the Assyrian and Oriental Churches; and the Church of India. Part III concludes with a study of the Great Schism of the 11th century and the evolution of the Eastern Orthodox Churches. The Greek and Russian churches are of major importance to our theme, providing a glimpse of what Christianity might have been like if the political dice had rolled a different way in the early Middle Ages. Eastern Orthodoxy may also provide clues to directions Christianity could take in the future.

Volume 2

Part IV: The Western Church, traces the path taken by western Christianity from the dawn of the second millennium to the Reformation. The High Middle Ages and Renaissance were times of crisis but also times of great opportunity and progress. The Roman church went into decline as the result of internal corruption and failure to meet the needs of the faithful. When the Reformation came it simply gave expression to perceptions of the church’s irrelevance. Protestantism was a complex set of religious initiatives. We shall study the forms it took in Germany, Switzerland, and the British Isles, and the Catholic response in the Counter-Reformation.

Part V: Christianity in the Modern World, studies the development of Christianity since the Reformation. Context is provided by a brief study of the political, scientific, philosophical and social challenges that faced Christianity from the 17th century onward. Four chapters are devoted to a study of Christianity’s response to those challenges: the growth of Evangelical and charismatic Christianity; the emergence of modern esoteric Christianity; the polarities of liberalism and fundamentalism; and important changes occurring within mainstream denominations.

Part VI: The Future of Christianity, explores in detail the vision of the Ekklesia and the seven spiritual paths—expressions of the One and the Many. The dual format provides the basis on which we evaluate Christianity’s current and future place in the world and examine the options available to religious seekers in the 21st century.

Each chapter ends with a Reflections section providing commentary on the topics and integrating them into the book’s larger themes.

An author naturally wants everyone to read a book in its entirety. But people today face many claims on their precious time, and they may be able to read only the few chapters that pique special interest. The early chapters of this book lay the groundwork for what comes later. But an effort has been made to cater to busy readers by making each chapter as self-contained as possible; even reading a chapter or two here and there will be meaningful and rewarding. Hopefully those busy readers will be encouraged to commit the time needed to read the book from beginning to end, and great effort has been made to ensure that their enthusiasm will be rewarded.

Scope and Limitations

The topics discussed in any book are seen through the eyes of its author. Every author writes from the position of his or her own experiences, interests and biases. Religious texts, in particular, become to a certain degree their authors’ personal testimonies. Christianity: the One, the Many focuses primarily on Christianity in its Mediterranean homeland, in eastern and western Europe, and in North America, which I know most about. Authors more familiar with the vibrant Christianity of Asia, Africa and South America—which now host more than one-half of the world’s Christians—are encouraged to share their knowledge; I will be eager to learn from them.

Even within the area of focus, writing the present book has demanded knowledge of the culture, beliefs, practices and attitudes of a broad spectrum of Christian traditions. For the record, I was raised a Christian but severed my links in early adulthood. Thereafter, my religious quest was varied and exciting, providing a wealth of experience inside and outside Christianity. I came to value the spiritual quest, with all its uncertainties, dead ends, and unexpected epiphanies, more than the comfort of spiritual stasis. For more than 30 years I have been involved in spiritual counseling and healing. For a shorter period I have participated in the life of a progressive Christian congregation. I continue to distance myself from the confessions of the mainstream Protestant tradition with which it is affiliated, though I often find myself on the right of the congregation in matters of theology and liturgy.

This book is not just another exercise in liberal-conservative polemic. Readers will discover that I both praise and criticize forms of Christianity at each end of the religious spectrum. More importantly I argue that conservative and liberal are multidimensional; they can be applied to theology, liturgy, ecclesiastical structure, and social attitudes, without the presumption of mutual correlations.

Although my spiritual journey has taken many turns, certain ongoing themes have provided continuity: strong social conscience, acceptance of diversity, a commitment to intellectual integrity and humility, and a deep reverence for the sacred. I have also acquired a strong belief in the overarching Ekklesia and the paths within it. During my journey I have acquired first-hand knowledge of a number of Christian traditions (some people criticize me for having experienced more than one) but have studied others only from a distance; that is an obvious impediment, and my descriptions suffer accordingly. To capture the essence of traditions that have died out is particularly hard. We really do not know what it was like to be a second-century Gnostic, a Cathar, or a monk in the Celtic church. We can read about them, and where possible read what spokespersons recorded of their experiences; but our understanding falls far short of personal involvement.

My journey is not yet over. As a result of writing this book I have become deeply interested in branches of Christianity that I have not so far experienced personally. I may explore them further as time and energy permit, and the future offers exciting new possibilities. Meanwhile, I am neither angry with the Christianity that I rejected nor blinded by one to which I have returned. My only agenda is to present Christianity in a way that is meaningful to me and relevant to today’s and tomorrow’s world.

As far as scholarly style is concerned, I have sometimes been accused of scholasticism, evidently still a crime despite its influence on Calvinism and its rehabilitation by the Council of Trent. What my critics meant was that I rely too heavily on authorities. Certainly I acknowledge what other writers, authors of scripture, theologians, relatively unknown people, or the enemies of religion have said. In many cases I let them speak for themselves through direct quotes. That is not necessarily because I agree with them; sometimes I quote them for the opposite reason. If I defer to certain authorities it is because I respect what they have to say and they serve my purpose. In all cases I choose my authorities freely and without coercion from, or loyalty to, any particular religious institution, tradition or philosophy.

I may face the charge that I have not discussed in sufficient detail the many works published over the last few years. To some extent that has been because of the overwhelming volume of material coming off the presses. But more importantly, the present book’s purpose is to trace long-term trends in Christianity, and my focus is on ideas and movements that have acquired a degree of stability. New ideas, interpretations and commentary are being offered almost daily: some encouraging, others challenging or even threatening. Ideas that develop lasting value will find their place in a book like this written in 10 or 20 years’ time; meanwhile, contemporary debate can sort out the valuable from the trivial.

Terminology

In accordance with traditional Christian usage I have used Jesus and Christ more or less interchangeably, though in places I discuss their possible distinction. In a departure from convention, I use Mary of Nazareth rather than the Virgin Mary to avoid an unnecessary doctrinal statement. Biblical quotations are from the King James Bible except where otherwise noted. In conformity with customary practice, the Acts of the Apostles will be referred to simply as Acts, even though other cited texts have titles such as the Acts of Thomas and Acts of Peter; the latter will always be spelled out in full.

The Great Schism refers here to the 11th-century split between east and west, not to the conflict between popes and antipopes two centuries later. For brevity, the Church of Rome will be referred to as Catholic, rather than Roman Catholic, except where obvious confusion would result, for example, with Anglo-Catholicism. The lower case, catholic refers to the unified church of the Middle Ages. Hinduism and Buddhism are referred to as Asian rather than eastern to avoid confusion with Oriental and Eastern Orthodox Christianity.

Capitalization always poses problems in a religious text. Should we capitalize the Trinity, the Divine, the Eucharist, and the Assumption? Should we capitalize pronouns referring to God or Christ? Should we capitalize Christian, Gnostic, Pentecostal or Evangelical when these are used as adjectives, or only when they are nouns? Is Protestant Churches more correct than Protestant churches? Except where a proper name or title is involved, the modern trend is to capitalize sparingly. But judgments still have to be made, and the results are rarely satisfying, even to an author. In direct quotes I have tried to preserve original authors’ styles as well as national spelling conventions, such as judgement and saviour. The practice of capitalizing descriptors of the seven paths has already been mentioned.

Consistent with modern usage, dates are designated as CE (Common Era) or BCE (before the Common Era) rather than BC (before Christ) or AD (anno Domini). Dates of people’s lives include the following abbreviations: b. (born) d. (died), r. (reigned or held office), and c. (circa or about). Periods in history have always been somewhat ill-defined, and nobody would claim that delineations are precise; but a rough consensus has emerged for convenience of reference. Thus late antiquity refers to the period from the first to the fourth century CE. The early Middle Ages extended from the fourth to the tenth century, the high Middle Ages from about 1000 to 1300, and the late Middle Ages from 1300 to 1500. The early modern age¹⁴ ran from about 1500 to 1800, and the modern age from 1800 onward. We have tried to adhere to these conventions.

Acknowledgements

Several hundred books and articles are referenced in this work, and I am in great debt to their authors for what they have taught me. Internet resources greatly facilitated the research, and I gratefully acknowledge use of material graciously provided on websites, including the Ante-Nicene Fathers, New Advent Catholic Encyclopedia, Christian Classics Ethereal Library, Early Christian Writings, Gnostic Society Library, and Internet Classics Archive. All applicable references are cited. Also I am indebted to the innumerable lecturers, preachers, colleagues and friends who generously shared their insights. I have learned much from discussions with John A. Shuck, pastor of the First Presbyterian Church of Elizabethton, Tennessee.

I am indebted to Donna Brown, Nancy Seifer, B. Harrison Taylor, Christine Tipton, and Martin Vieweg who provided valuable feedback on the manuscript. Finally I record my sincere thanks to Sylvia Lagergren who not only spent countless hours reviewing the manuscript but whose love, encouragement and sacrifice made the work possible. Remaining weaknesses in the book are entirely mine.

The Author

John Francis Nash, Ph.D., was born in the United Kingdom before World War II and moved to the United States in the mid-1960s. He earned his doctorate from the University of London and holds other degrees from British, Belgian and American institutions. A varied career led him from scientific research and business to higher education, before he retired to freelance writing and teaching in philosophy, religion, and spiritual healing.

Dr. Nash has published 12 books and roughly 150 scholarly articles, papers, and other contributions to the literature of multiple fields. His most recent books, both published in 2004, were Quest for the Soul and The Soul and its Destiny. Recent articles include The Trinity and Its Symbolism, Esoteric Healing in the Orthodox, Roman and Anglican Churches and The Power and Timelessness of Ritual. He founded and serves as editor-in-chief of The Esoteric Quarterly, an online peer-review journal of esoteric philosophy (www.esotericstudies.net/quarterly). He has given numerous presentations and conducted workshops in the United States and Europe. Further information can be found on his website: www.uriel.com.

¹ Those cultural despisers were members of the Berlin salons which Schleiermacher patronized in the late 1790s.

² John S. Spong. Jesus for the Non-Religious. HarperCollins, 2007.

³ Philip Schaff. History of the Christian Church, Revised Edition. Charles Scribner, 1910.

⁴ Williston Walker. A History of the Christian Church, Revised Edition. Charles Scribner, 1959.

⁵ Paul Johnson. A History of Christianity. Atheneum, 1976.

⁶ In its technical sense a myth is an account of something that transcends the natural order, rather than something that is not true.

⁷ Sabine Baring-Gould. Onward Christian Soldiers, 1865. Melody: St. Gertrude, by Arthur S. Sullivan, 1871.

⁸ Eusebius. Ecclesiastical History, Book 8, 2. Library of Nicene and Post Nicene Fathers. A statement in Eusebius’ Preparation for the Gospel, book 12, ch. 31, made the even bolder claim that falsehood is justified for the benefit of those who need this mode of instruction.

⁹ John 15:5.

¹⁰ Estimates vary, but in round numbers there are 2 billion Christians in the world. They break down into 1 billion Catholics, 500 million Protestants, 260 million Orthodox, and the rest miscellaneous.

¹¹ There are roughly 90 million Baptists, 75 million Calvinists and Anglicans, 70 million Methodists, and 65 million Lutherans. Estimates of the number of Pentecostals vary from 20 million to more than 100 million. More than 100 distinct Baptist subdenominations have been identified.

¹² Progressive Christianity is the name given to a grassroots movement which began in the 1980s and which is distinguished by liturgical innovation, openness to doctrinal discussion and scriptural criticism, and inclusive social attitudes.

¹³ Ephesians 1:23.

¹⁴ The early modern age encompassed the Renaissance.

Part I

Christ and the

Birth of Christianity

A question of language: what term shall we use for Jesus’ public activity?

We need one that encompasses his message, deeds, and purpose. Common phrases such as the ministry of Jesus and the message of Jesus are too narrow. Ministry suggests what a pastor or priest does. Message suggests that Jesus was primarily a teacher and/or preacher. Of course, he was that, but to construe his primary activity as verbal is too narrow. Even mission often has a narrowly religious connotation, as when we speak of missionaries who seek to convert individuals from one religion to another. Public activity . . . also has shortcomings; it is very general and too bland.

But if mission is understood more broadly, it works quite well… [M]ission is activity with a purpose. Mission involves a concentrated commitment, a dedicated devotion, purposeful activity. Mission and vocation are thus quite similar, for a vocation involves calling, activity, and purpose.

Marcus Borg. Jesus: Uncovering the Life, Teachings, and

Relevance of a Religious Revolutionary.¹

Chapter 1

Environment of

Early Christianity

A ll modern world religions were influenced by the Axial Age. German

philosopher Karl Theodor Jaspers (1883-1969) coined the term to refer to the period from about 800 to 200 BCE that witnessed