Shared Mobility

By Junfeng Jiao

Shared Mobility offers a current view on one of the most significant economic activities in recent years. While most studies investigate shared mobility services and transportation piecemeal by city, mode, or company, this book focuses on transportation network companies themselves, highlighting shared bikes and E-scooters. Sections cover how they perform at the local or regional level in an effort to help governments better plan and regulate these emerging services.

Shared Mobility explores the opportunities and challenges in these new systems and provides a thorough and succinct reference text for researchers, graduate students, and professionals in the fields of transportation planning, transportation engineering, and urban planning.

• Examines data collected from the author’s extensive multi-year lab study on shared mobility and transportation
• Offers a detailed quantitative analysis of shared mobility activities and their impacts on people and cities
• Explores the interactions between shared mobility modes and policy outcomes

• Language: English
• Publisher: Elsevier Science
• Release date: Jul 20, 2021
• ISBN: 9780128230886

Junfeng Jiao

Junfeng Jiao is an associate professor of urban planning at the University of Texas-Austin, Austin, TX, United States, and the founding director of their Urban Information Lab. He also serves on the editorial boards of Journal of Urban Technology, Transportation Research Part D, Journal of Transport and Land Use, PLOS ONE, and AIMS Public Health. Dr. Jiao researches urban informatics, smart cities, and emerging technologies to better understand the relationship between the built environment and human behavior. His work has been published in top urban planning, transportation, public health, and computer journals and has been reported by such media outlets as the Associated Press, CNN, US News, Yahoo, MSN, NBC, NPR, USA Today, and Wired.

Book preview

9780128230886_FC

Shared Mobility

First Edition

Junfeng Jiao

University of Texas-Austin, Austin, TX, United States

Table of Contents

Cover image

Title page

Copyright

Acknowledgments

1: A history and evolution of shared mobility

Abstract

Background

History of shared mobility

Digital age and shared mobility

Vehicle sharing

Passenger service sharing

Delivery service sharing

2: Why does shared mobility exist? A critical review of theories behind shared economy

Abstract

Background

Limitation of the shared economy

Cost benefits

Sustainability

Government regulation and business morality

Convenience

Transit equity

3: Lessons from the 2017 National Household Travel Survey

Abstract

Introduction

Background

Literature review

Methods

Results

Discussion and conclusions

Limitations

Appendix

4: Shared mobility and public transit: A love-hate story

Abstract

Introduction

Background

E-scooter usage and transit corridors

Data

Methods

Results

Conclusion

5: Transportation network companies: Who use them and for what purpose

Abstract

Introduction

Literature review

Methods

Results

TNCs and perceived trip making activity

Usage patterns among heavy user

Discussions and conclusions

6: Bike sharing: Ridership and impact of the built environment

Abstract

Introduction

Data and methods

Community character

Bicycle safety

Active transport connectivity

Regression results

Discussion

Bike-sharing and built environments in Texas cities

Results

Conclusion

7: Shared micro-mobility: The rise of and the future of E-scooters

Abstract

Introduction

Backgrounda

Understanding shared E‐scooter travels

Results

Understanding E-scooters violations

Methodology

Results

Discussion

Conclusion

8: Lessons and regulations: Where do we go from here

Abstract

Introduction

A recap of the book

Conclusions

Index

Copyright

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Acknowledgments

This book is based on many research projects that have been carried out in the Urban Information Lab at the University of Texas at Austin. I would like to express my appreciation to my wonderful students and research assistants over many years, who truly made this book possible. Without you, this book would not exist.

Mira Bhat made tremendous contributions to Chapters 1, 2, and 8 and provided a detailed overview of shared mobility. Mira is a brilliant student whose curiosity, energy, and enthusiasm were real assets during our lab meetings.

Yefu Chen’s works on Shared Mobility and Built Environments helped us understand the relationship between shared mobility and public transit. He made essential contributions to Chapters 3–5.

Chris Bischak and Sarah Hyden’s work on National Household Survey and Transportation Network Companies made Chapters 3 and 5 possible. Their collaboration was a model of excellent student works at UT.

Louis Alcorn’s work on Shared Bike Activities helped us understand how built environments might affect shared bicycle use in Austin and Beyond. His work significantly strengthened the materials in Chapter 6.

Shunhua Bai did pioneering work on E-scooters, helping us understand the characteristics of E-scooter travel in Austin and Beyond. He made significant contributions to Chapter 7.

Joshua Goldberger, Rand Makarem, and Samantha Lee assisted in editing the entire volume. With their steadfast dedication, we were able to compile and connect many themes from our lab.

I also wish to thank many students, although not mentioned, who were a vital part of our lively lab community. Working with the students in the Urban Information Lab has been one of the most rewarding experiences of my career.

I would not have had the pleasure of working with these students without the generous support of the funding agencies who helped to launch our truly innovative lab. I am grateful to the USDOT Tier 1 University Transportation Center on Cooperative Mobility for Competitive Megaregions (CM2), National Science Foundation, UT Good Systems Grand Challenge, Hampton K. and Margaret Frye Snell Endowed Chair in Transportation, the IC2 Institute, Texas Global, UT Green Fund, Microsoft, Intel, Google, and others.

Last but not least I want to especially thank the School of Architecture and the Office of the Vice President for Research at the University of Texas at Austin for their ongoing support to the Urban Information Lab. I am truly grateful to be part of an institution that supports research for a new urban future.

1: A history and evolution of shared mobility

Abstract

The advancements in the technology sector gave rise to the evolvement of the transportation sector into multiple forms, allowing the authors to be multimodal. Shared mobility is the act of sharing a vehicle, bicycle, or other transit mode and it is an expanding sector of the shared economy. Shared modes aim to build upon their predecessors in order to better satisfy the diverse transportation needs. This chapter will explore the arising of shared mobility and how it evolved due to technological advancements. Current forms of shared mobility, such as car sharing, scooter sharing as well as current forms of ridesharing, such as carpooling and vanpooling will be discussed in the chapter. Lastly, the chapter provides an overview on courier network services that connect couriers with merchandise to consumers.

Keywords

Shared mobility; Ride sharing; Vehicle sharing; Delivery service sharing; Passenger service sharing

Chapter outline

Background

History of shared mobility

Digital age and shared mobility

Vehicle sharing

Passenger service sharing

Delivery service sharing

References

Background

Transportation is a key factor in determining the quality of life and economic mobility. Shaheen et al. (2017a) found that lower wages and lower socioeconomic status were associated with longer household commutes among younger generations. Transportation availability has a monumental impact on access to jobs, housing, healthcare, education, and preserving social connections. Moreover, the linkage between transportation and quality of life is so crucial that policymakers spend a significant amount of time and resources building and preserving multimodal transportation networks (Shaheen et al., 2017b). Shared mobility can provide greater access to transportation and is beneficial for the communities. According to the Federal Highway Administration, shared mobility is defined as the shared use of a vehicle, bicycle, or other transit mode and is an expanding sector of the shared economy. Rather than requiring ownership, shared mobility allows the user a short-term access to transportation on an as-needed basis (Shaheen et al., 2016). Over time, the method of how the author conducts shared mobility has changed to meet the transportation demands and to adapt to the shifting preferences from the Digital Age. Throughout the chapter, the authors will explore the beginnings of shared mobility and how it has evolved through technology. The authors will then discuss the current forms of shared mobility including car sharing, scooter sharing, bike-sharing, and forms of ridesharing, such as carpooling and vanpooling. Shared mobility also includes on-demand ride services, and courier network services (CNSs) within its taxonomy.

History of shared mobility

When the authors talk about modern shared mobility, they will immediately think of taxis. Taxis were not always the bright yellow automobiles that we see now. Taxis date back to 1605 Paris and London, where they were for-hire horse-drawn carriages (Tate, 2018). Roughly two centuries later, Joseph Hansom designed a faster, more lightweight carriage that only required two wheels. Thus, only one horse was required to pull the carriage, which made navigating through London traffic easier (Tate, 2018). These rides became cheaper and quicker, so they grew in popularity throughout major European cities. In the late 1800s, an electric battery-powered cab was available and was quickly revolutionized by Gottlieb Daimler. Daimler had invented the world’s first gasoline-powered cab in 1897 and within the next 10 years, in 1907, Daimler’s invention was operating in New York City (Heitmann, 2018). Businesses began surfacing after Daimler’s invention, as Harry and Alan created The New York Taxi Cab Company that same year, charging their customers based on mileage using taximeters. John Hertz later invented the yellow taxicab in Chicago in the early 1900s. Interestingly, he pioneered the yellow taxicab because yellow was the easiest color to spot according to Remane et al. (2016). A decade later during the roaring 1920s, industrialist companies like General Motors and the Ford Motor Company started taxicab operations but were not met with the same success that the Checkered Cab Manufacturing Company achieved. After the taxicab business was established, innovation pursued the installation of two-way radios by the late 1940s (Remane et al., 2016). The taxi system, for its time, was efficient in meeting transportation demands for those who relied on shared mobility.

While the taxi system was being refined, the invention of gas-powered vehicles in the United States was occurring simultaneously. Previously, people had the option of importing cars from Europe, but doing so was extremely expensive because of trade tariffs (Candelo, 2019). When James and Charles Duryea designed the first successful American gasoline automobile in Massachusetts in 1893, there was an economic boom in the automobile industry (Berkebile, 2019). After the invention of the automobile, business moguls like Henry Ford and William Durant founded their respective companies within the next decade, near 1908 (Heitmann, 2018). Ford was successful with his mass production techniques, known as the assembly line, that was quickly adopted by other automobile manufacturers in America. His ingenuity coupled with the lack of trade barriers made American manufactured cars cheaper in comparison to their European counterpart. This improved automobile production resulted in huge demand for travel and an increased emphasis on personal vehicle ownership (PVO). Despite decreased costs, owning one or more vehicles was a status symbol. Cars were the newest form of technology at the time and thus being able to afford a car signaled great wealth. Access to transportation is linked to a better quality of life; therefore, it is natural that the society highly praised and prioritized private vehicle ownership. Later in the chapter, the authors will explore how this mindset has changed over time through shared mobility.

The invention of the car gave way to the earliest form of carpooling. Carpooling was initially a policy idea in the United States during the 1940s. World War II deeply impacted the US economically with severe oil and rubber shortages. Therefore, the government encouraged communities to limit the use of personal cars (Ferguson, 1997). Before the Digital Age and the growing trend of the shared economy, it was understandable that people were hesitant to ride with strangers because there was not an established form of trust between the users. Due to this implication, early forms of shared mobility were limited to transactions between close personnel such as friends, family, and neighbors. To carpool with someone, both parties had to have the same desired destination, agree to go at the same time, and be near one another. While carpooling was feasible, it was difficult to frequently meet all the criteria. A case where carpooling could be achieved daily would be for work purposes. Carpooling was primarily driven by economic incentives, so for coworkers to drive together, they had to live near one another (Cohen and Shaheen, 2018). In other words, it was not practical for people who lived far away from each other to carpool. Shared mobility during this time had limited capabilities and was conducted on a much smaller scale than we see today. However, we have since seen how great advances in technology have improved shared mobility systems with the rise of the Digital Age.

Digital age and shared mobility

The Information Age, also known as the Digital Age, began in the late 20th century and continues to this day. A vast amount of data was widely available upon the introduction of the personal computer in 1974. Enhanced subsequent technology quickly followed and there was an epochal shift from traditional industries, as many activities were now done by computers (Benghozi and Paris, 2016). Research conducted by Davies et al. (2017) furthers the findings by asserting that technology has now become an integral part of life. Older generations may have difficulty grasping new technologies because they did not grow up in that era; however, Generation X and onward did. Meaning, the current working population, and younger populations are well versed in technology and are more accepting of innovation. As a result, new business models that emerged from the Digital Age, relying on technology, are not seen as strange or foreign. These businesses are encouraged as technology is convenient and more familiar to the society (Anderson and Jiang, 2018). Therefore, the surfacing of shared mobility technologies was reasonably met with success. Integrating shared mobility with technology enhanced its services and made it a worthy rival of the traditional industry, ultimately beating them out. An example of the preference for technology can be seen in the disruption of the yellow cab industry upon the arrival of Uber and Lyft in New York during the early 2010s (Alley, 2016). Previous to this, investing in the cab industry was as solid as investing in gold since the early 1920s. Despite that common belief, the introduction of Uber and Lyft doomed the industry and drove away the yellow cab business. Although ride-sharing platforms are generally cheaper than traditional taxi systems, there are certain areas, such as Manhattan, that the price competition between taxis and Ubers are more favorable toward the cab business. Yet, Uber is still a prominent method of shared mobility (Brodeur and Nield, 2018). Despite Uber being monetarily disadvantageous in this region of New York, the familiarity and convenience of technology attracted its users. Brodeur and Nield (2018) attributed this event to the general reliance on technology, creating a preference for it. Thus, Uber and Lyft were able to siphon off the yellow cab industry’s loyal customers, hollowing out the foundation of a once-prominent business. Moreover, the preference for technology could stem from the confidence in it. Mobile apps rely on global positioning enabled technology that provides more detailed, comprehensive trip-planning information that reduces wait times and makes its services feel more reliable. When consumers are given more information about mobility services, along with updates and options, they are more likely to trust it. The authors will discuss this trend further in the 4th chapter. Overall, shared mobility has been able to greatly expand because it has evolved with the younger generation and their reliance on technology, whereas traditional systems failed to. This led to the decline of those traditional methods with shared mobility rising as its successor.

The pace and demands of society demand high mobility, and thus having reliable transportation is critical to perform daily activities. Through technology, transportation access has evolved into multiple forms, allowing us to be multimodal. Being multimodal means individuals will employ various forms of transportation to meet their different needs. Millennials are immensely multimodal according to Sakaria and Stehfest (2013), and since they make up a majority of the workforce, their transportation behavior affects the viability of shared mobility. Because the current population is multimodal, great emphasis is no longer placed on PVO. In other words, access to mobility is now more important than ownership of private mobility. This preference shift has given rise to the acceptance and increased demand for shared mobility, allowing more businesses and companies to specialize in shared mobility modes (Lee et al., 2020). Throughout the rest of the chapter, the authors will discuss the various, complex forms of shared mobility that have emerged and are currently integrated with urban development. These complex forms can be grouped into three categories: Vehicle Sharing, Passenger Service Sharing, and Delivery Service Sharing. Car sharing, scooter sharing, and bike-sharing encompass vehicle sharing. Various forms of ridesharing and on-demand ride services make up the sharing of a passenger ride. Lastly, CNSs are the primary source of delivery ride sharing. The evolution of each form will be discussed below.

Vehicle sharing

Car sharing refers to a model of car renting where people can access a vehicle for a limited duration, usually paid by the hour or by miles driven. One of the earliest car sharing programs can be found in Zurich, Switzerland in