Roman Bath: A New History and Archaeology of Aquae Sulis

By Peter Davenport

For almost three hundred years, excavations have been carried out in Roman Bath. At first these were rare and sporadic and archaeological finds were made by chance. Even fewer were reported. But from the 1860s, deliberate investigations were made and increasingly professional methods employed. The Roman Baths were laid open to view, but little was published. From the 1950s, interest accelerated, professionals and amateurs collaborated, and there was never a decade in which some new discovery was not made.

The first popular but authoritative presentation of this work was made in 1971 and updated several times. However, from the 1990s to the present there has been some sort of archaeological investigation almost every year. This has thrown much new and unexpected light on the town of Aquae Sulis and its citizens. In this book, Peter Davenport, having been involved in most of the archaeological work in Bath since 1980, attempts to tell the story of Roman Bath: the latest interim report on the ‘Three Hundred Year Dig’.

• Language: English
• Publisher: The History Press
• Release date: Jul 16, 2021
• ISBN: 9780750996433

Peter Davenport

Newly retired, Peter Davenport was a professional archaeologist for 46 years, 25 of those being the senior archaeologist at Bath Archaeological Trust. He has been involved in all the excavations carried out in the Roman Baths and the great majority of excavations in the rest of Bath since 1980. He is a Trustee of the Roman Baths Foundation and lives in Batheaston.

Book preview

IllustrationIllustration

To Lisa, Sarah and Becca

and in memory of

John C. Clarke, amicus romanorum

First published 2021

The History Press

The Mill, Brimscombe Port

Stroud, Gloucestershire, GL5 2QG

www.thehistorypress.co.uk

© Peter Davenport, 2021

The right of Peter Davenport to be identified as the Author of this work has been asserted in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without the permission in writing from the Publishers.

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A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

ISBN 978 0 7509 9643 3

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CONTENTS

Acknowledgements

List of Illustrations

Foreword

Introduction

Prelude

1The Romans Arrive

2The Army at Walcot

3Taming the Waters

4Early Baths and Temple

5The First 100 Years Around the Temple and Baths

6The First Town of Aquae Sulis

7The Mid-Second Century: Another Beginning

8The Monumental Centre

9The Town Around the Baths

10 People of Aquae Sulis

11 The Countryside of Aquae Sulis

12 Late Roman Aquae Sulis

13 The End of Aquae Sulis

Afterword: The Three-Hundred-Year Dig

Bibliography

Notes

Index

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would first like to thank Stephen Clews, whose title of Roman Baths and Pump Room Manager does not do justice to his academic knowledge and interest in the archaeology of the Roman Baths. He asked if I would write a new and up-to-date survey of the Roman town that owed its existence to the baths and spring. His colleagues at the museum have been unfailingly helpful, especially Susan Fox, collections manager and her assistant, Zofia Matyjaskiewicz, in providing access to the museum’s archaeological archives and images and providing new ones. I must also thank my colleagues at the former Bath Archaeological Trust, especially Mark Beaton, Robert Bell and Marek Lewcun, who ran or supervised nearly all the archaeological investigations in the town between 1983 and 2005. Marek has also been involved in most of the work since that latter date and has helped fill in gaps in the visual record with images he had taken.

Photographs and other images are individually credited, except as follows, and with the exception of Fig. 2, whose owner I have not been able to trace. Should he or she come forward, proper credit will be given. I should also like to thank Ian R. Cartwright, Chief Photographer of the Oxford Institute of Archaeology, for providing images from the Institute’s archive, and Oxford University School of Archaeology and the Library of the National Museums Scotland for allowing the reproduction of images without charge. The Ussher Society also allowed the use of Figs 5 and 6 free of charge. Cambridge University Collection of Aerial Photography also kindly allowed reproduction without charge but were unable to provide the image itself for reasons beyond their control. Other specific permissions are as follows: Figs 24, 71 and 107 are reproduced by kind permission of the Society of Antiquaries of London. Fig. 29 is reproduced courtesy of the British Library and Fig. 100 of the British Museum. Fig. 92 is copyright West Air Photography, now part of the Historic England Archive. As the archive has been completely closed during the Covid-19 pandemic, it has not been possible to formally acquire permission. The situation will be regularised as soon as it becomes possible to do so.

My wife, Lisa Brown, acted as proofreader and added what elegance there might be to the text. Finally, I have to acknowledge Emeritus Professor Sir Barry Cunliffe, who brought his ex-student to Bath all those years ago and generously provided the foreword to this edition.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Chapter 1

Fig. 1 Flints from the Hot Bath spring. (Roman Baths Museum)

Fig. 2 The hot springs as they may have looked before the Romans came (actually a spring in Armenia).

Fig. 3 The causeway into the sacred spring (based on Cunliffe and Davenport, 1985 , Fig. 27 ).

Fig. 4 Celtic coins from the spring. (© Bath and North East Somerset Council, Roman Baths Museum)

Fig. 5 The deep geology of the Bath area and the spring catchment (redrawn from Gallois, 2006 , Fig. 2 ).

Fig. 6 The long-buried springs break through at Bath in the late Pleistocene (redrawn from Gallois, 2006 , Fig. 6 ).

Fig. 7 The Dobunni and their neighbours.

Fig. 8 Roman roads and the Avon Valley topography around Aquae Sulis.

Fig. 9 Bath, sitting in the Avon Valley, looking south-west from Solsbury Hill. The valley continues towards the Severn on the right.

Fig. 10 The Fosse Way road surfaces and roadside ditch exposed at Hat and Feather Yard. (Marek Lewcun)

Chapter 2

Fig. 11 The tombstone of cavalry trooper Lucius Vitellius Tancinus. (Roman Baths Museum)

Fig. 12 The octagonal building at Hat and Feather Yard. It has been cut into the hillside and then cut away itself on the left by a later building. (Marek Lewcun)

Fig. 13 Early, probably pre- AD 69 , pottery from Nelson Place and Hat and Feather Yard. Locally made, military-type flagons and a honey pot and a complete example of one of the imported amphora types found at Walcot (here from Verulamium, © Verulamium Museum), common on military sites, usually containing olives or olive pressings.

Fig. 14 The early road junction at Walcot and the octagonal building.

Fig. 15 Excavations at Bathwick, one of the early Roman, probably military ovens. (Marek Lewcun)

Fig. 16 Early, typically military, glass and pottery from Nelson Place. (© Bath and North East Somerset Council, Roman Baths Museum)

Chapter 3

Fig. 17 Elevation of Temple front (after Cunliffe and Davenport, 1985 , Fig. 11 ).

Fig. 18 Coins of Nero from spring. (© Bath and North East Somerset Council, Roman Baths Museum)

Fig. 19 The spring under construction. (© Bath and North East Somerset Council, Roman Baths Museum)

Fig. 20 Oak piles in the spring and wall during the 1979 dig. (© Barry Cunliffe/Oxford University School of Archaeology)

Fig. 21 Sluices from the baths and possibly of the sacred spring. (© Bath and North East Somerset Council, Roman Baths Museum)

Fig. 22 The baths and temple as first built, around AD 70 .

Fig. 23 The south wall of the spring and the West Bath windows. (© Barry Cunliffe/Oxford University School of Archaeology)

Fig. 24 The lead lining of the sacred spring tank in 1878 . (© The Society of Antiquaries of London)

Fig. 25 The sculptured pediment of the temple, coloured as it might have been.

Fig. 26 Close-up photo of the Gorgon in its roundel. (© Bath and North East Somerset Council, Roman Baths Museum)

Chapter 4

Fig. 27 Plan of the Period 1 baths.

Fig. 28 Photo of the Great Bath drained. (© Bath and North East Somerset Council, Roman Baths Museum)

Fig. 29 Hoare’s depiction of the East Baths in 1754 . (© The British Library Board [Add. MS 21577 b])

Fig. 30 Elevation and cross-section of the Great Bath (based on Cunliffe 1969 , Fig. 37 with modifications).

Fig. 31 Reconstruction of interior of the Period 1 Great Bath.

Fig. 32 The fallen vault and hypocaust in the West Baths tepidarium in 1869 (Irvine’s record, redrawn from Cunliffe 1969 , Fig. 48 ).

Fig. 33 Reconstruction of the temple precinct in the late period. (© Bath and North East Somerset Council, Roman Baths Museum)

Fig. 34 Four of the deities on the altar corners, clockwise from top left: Bacchus, Hercules, Apollo and Jupiter. (© Bath and North East Somerset Council, Roman Baths Museum)

Fig. 35 Minerva’s head. (© Bath and North East Somerset Council, Roman Baths Museum)

Fig. 36 The ‘Vilbia’ curse and coins from the sacred spring. (© Bath and North East Somerset Council, Roman Baths Museum)

Fig. 37 Personal items, bracelets, earrings and brooches, and the ivory handle from a folding blade, probably a cosmetic implement ( 70 mm long) all from the sacred spring. (© Bath and North East Somerset Council, Roman Baths Museum)

Fig. 38 The ballista washer ( 83 mm diameter) and gemstones from the sacred spring and the culvert. The gems are typically 10 × 12 . 5 mm. (washer © Bath and North East Somerset Council, Roman Baths Museum and the gems from Cunliffe 2000 , Pl. 23 )

Fig. 39 The tin mask from the drain ( 330 mm high) and the ivory breast ex-voto ( 70 mm across) from the sacred spring. (© Bath and North East Somerset Council, Roman Baths Museum)

Fig. 40 Pewter vessels from the sacred spring and culvert. (© Bath and North East Somerset Council, Roman Baths Museum)

Fig. 41 Paterae from the sacred spring, all inscribed ‘ Deae Sulis Minervae ’ or variations. The bronze patera is the probable Hadrian’s Wall souvenir. (© Bath and North East Somerset Council, Roman Baths Museum)

Fig. 42 Drawings of the silver (top) and bronze (bottom) paterae (from Cunliffe, 1988 , Figs 8 and 9 ).

Fig. 43 Fragments of probable priest’s regalia from the sacred spring (© Bath and North East Somerset Council, Roman Baths Museum) and a reconstruction of the filigree as hat decoration.

Fig. 44 A selection of items from the sacred spring. (© Bath and North East Somerset Council, Roman Baths Museum)

Fig. 45 The penannular brooch from the sacred spring: probably late fifth century. (© Bath and North East Somerset Council, Roman Baths Museum)

Chapter 5

Fig. 46 Plan of the central part of town AD 70 – 150 (including early ‘administration’ building).

Fig. 47 The early road pre-dating the temple precinct, smoother surface, top left and the junction with the rerouted section, more cobbly surface, bottom right.

Fig. 48 Irvine’s plan of the later road around the precinct (the dark areas show what he was able to see). (By kind permission of National Museums Scotland)

Fig. 49 The early ditch under the courtyard building with its fill of column fragments from the demolished early building.

Fig. 50 The columns reconstructed from the fragments found in the ditch under the courtyard building.

Chapter 6

Fig. 51 Plan of London Street excavations (all periods).

Fig. 52 The early strip building and footbridge at Hat and Feather Yard.

Fig. 53 The rear of the terrace for the first wooden strip building at Hat and Feather Yard. (Marek Lewcun)

Fig. 54 Plan of the second phase of building at Hat and Feather Yard.

Fig. 55 The second century building with probable shrine. (Marek Lewcun)

Fig. 56 The bust from Hat and Feather Yard. (© Bath and North East Somerset Council, Roman Baths Museum)

Fig. 57 The massive footings of the latest stone building at Nelson Place under excavation (a) and the plan of the latest stone buildings at Nelson Place (b).

Fig. 58 Architectural fragments (large pier and column capitals) from the Methodist Burial Ground at Walcot.

Fig. 59 Plan of Walcot Street/Bathwick settlement.

Fig. 60 Architectural fragments (colonnette and part of a frieze[?]) from the Hat and Feather Yard excavations.

Fig. 61 Plan of the later stone buildings at Hat and Feather Yard.

Fig. 62 Photo of the later back street at Hat and Feather Yard. (Marek Lewcun)

Fig. 63 Reconstruction painting of the street frontage of Hat and Feather Yard by Jane Brayne.

Fig. 64 The plan of the large house at St Swithin’s Yard.

Fig. 65 The side wall of the St Swithin’s Yard house and the lane alongside.

Chapter 7

Fig. 66 The central area in the mid to late second century.

Fig. 67 The north-south road at the west end of the possible garden beyond the temple precinct.

Fig. 68 The mosaic under the Crystal Palace public house.

Fig. 69 Cutaway view of the spring enclosure building. (© Bath and North East Somerset Council, Roman Baths Museum)

Fig. 70 The stylobate of the eastern precinct portico (a) and the datable deposits against it surviving from the Victorian excavations (b).

Fig. 71 Mann’s record of the eastern wall of the precinct and the ‘monumental structure’. (© The Society of Antiquaries of London)

Chapter 8

Fig. 72 Plan of the Period 2 baths.

Fig. 73 Plan of the Period 3 baths.

Fig. 74 The fallen window arch at the west end of the Great Bath.

Fig. 75 Reconstruction of interior view of Period 3 Great Bath.

Fig. 76 Reconstruction of exterior view of Period 3 baths and temple.

Fig. 77 A section of the box tile and concrete vault over the Great Bath, displayed inverted.

Fig. 78 A portion of the ridge rib and adjacent box tiles of the Great Bath vault of Period 3 .

Fig. 79 The collapsed vault in the spring. (© Barry Cunliffe/Oxford University School of Archaeology)

Fig. 80 The stylobate wall of the Period 3 corridor. (© Cotswold Archaeology)

Fig. 81 Façade of the Four Seasons with the Luna pediment superimposed.

Fig. 82 The theatre hypothesis: the evidence.

Fig. 83 The theatre hypothesis: possible reconstructions.

Chapter 9

Fig. 84 Cross-section of the enclosing bank (after Cunliffe, 1969 , Fig. 63 ).

Fig. 85 The courtyard building and its surroundings.

Fig. 86 Plan of the Hot Bath baths. (Based on Irvine’s 1864 drawing, by kind permission of National Museums Scotland.)

Fig. 87 Two dog figurines from the courtyard building and just north of it (drawings from Davenport, 1999 , Fig. 1. 78 and photo © Bath and North East Somerset Council, Roman Baths Museum).

Fig. 88 Shoes from the cobbler’s rubbish pit on Walcot Street. (© Bath and North East Somerset Council, Roman Baths Museum)

Chapter 10

Fig. 89 Three military tombstones (Gaius Murrius, Julius Vitalis and Marcus Valerius) plus the memorial to Rusonia Aventina. See also Fig. 11 (© Bath and North East Somerset Council, Roman Baths Museum and antiquarian drawings after Cunliffe 1969 Plates LXVII and LXVIII)

Fig. 90 A selection of curses from the spring. (© Bath and North East Somerset Council, Roman Baths Museum)

Fig. 91 The grave of the elderly lady from Bathampton. (Marek Lewcun)

Chapter 11

Fig. 92 Aerial photograph of Bathampton Down prehistoric and Roman field system. (© West Air Photography)

Fig. 93 Plan of Bathampton Meadows Farm Roman phase.

Fig. 94 A stone pewter mould for the stand of a vessel, from Julian Road, probably early fourth century, and a pewter chalice from the sacred spring.

Fig. 95 Reconstruction painting of the Durley Hill Roman villa at Keynsham. (© Bath and North East Somerset Council, Roman Baths Museum)

Fig. 96 Location map of the suburban villas.

Fig. 97 Plan of the villa at Lower Common, Bath.

Chapter 12

Fig. 98 Plan of late Roman Bath.

Fig. 99 The discovery of the Beau Street hoard. (© Cotswold Archaeology)

Fig. 100 Bags 1 and 4 of the hoard being ‘unpicked’. (© Trustees of the British Museum)

Fig. 101 The internal face of the Roman city wall at Terrace Walk.

Fig. 102 The external face of the city wall near to Terrace Walk at the Compass Hotel in 1965 (from Cunliffe, 1969 , Plate LXXXIV).

Fig. 103 James Irvine’s restoration painting of the collapsed mosaic he discovered under the Gainsborough Hotel in 1864 (by kind permission of National Museums Scotland) and the possible baths mosaic from the Bluecoat School. (© Bath and North East Somerset Council, Roman Baths Museum)

Fig. 104 Reconstruction of the temple precinct and baths in the mid-fourth century.

Fig. 105 The pediment of the quadrifrons buttress.

Fig. 106 The plan of the Period 4 baths (fourth century).

Fig. 107 Richard Mann’s long section of the drain and the buildings north of it. (© The Society of Antiquaries of London)

Fig. 108 The Great Drain (from a video © Bath and North East Somerset Council, Roman Baths Museum).

Fig. 109 The eastern arch to the destroyed manhole over the Great Drain. Cf Fig. 107 . (© Bath and North East Somerset Council, Roman Baths Museum)

Fig. 110 Cross-section and plan of one of the Great Drain manholes (from Cunliffe, 1969 , Fig. 41 ).

Fig. 111 Plan of the Period 4 temple precinct.

Chapter 13

Fig. 112 Photo of late cobblings in the precinct. (© Barry Cunliffe/Oxford University School of Archaeology)

Fig. 113 Reconstruction of the baths and precinct in the fifth century.

Fig. 114 The columned doorway and step of the entrance into the room built between the quadrifrons arch and the eastern buttress in the temple precinct. (© Barry Cunliffe/Oxford University School of Archaeology)

Fig. 115 Wear in the Great Baths walkways. a. Note the unworn early paving under the partly removed later paving and the sharp edge to the worn section where it was protected during erosion by the overlying slabs. b. A remnant of later paving, its edges worn by the wear through it.

Fig. 116 Extreme wear in the paving around the Circular Bath.

Fig. 117 The collapse process of the vault over the spring (compare Fig. 79 ).

Fig. 118 The fallen rubble of the reservoir enclosure in the temple precinct. (© Barry Cunliffe/Oxford University School of Archaeology)

FOREWORD

When workmen, digging a sewer trench along Stall Street in 1727, uncovered the gilded bronze head of Minerva it heralded the beginning of the long and exciting process leading to the discovery of the remarkable Roman healing shrine of Sulis Minerva, deep beneath modern Bath. That so much is now known of the Roman complex is a tribute to the many who, over the last three centuries, have laboured in the mud, often in dangerous conditions, to explore and to rescue the basic evidence upon which Bath’s former glories can be reconstructed. That the process of discovery continues, and new and surprising evidence may appear any moment, is what makes archaeology such a satisfying pursuit.

Along with the privilege of discovery comes the responsibility to make the new information available to the general public whose story this is. So it was, in 1864, that the Rev. H.M. Scarth published his Aquae Solis or Notices of Roman Bath, bringing together all previous finds including the stunning remains of the temple façade found when the foundations of the Pump Room were dug in 1790. In the years following the publication of Scarth’s book, new finds came thick and fast. Remains of the temple podium were being recorded during building work in the 1860s, soon to be followed by the excavation of the Roman Baths – a hugely ambitious programme driven forward by city architect, Major Charles Davis to the lasting benefit of the city. More of the Baths was exposed in the 1920s but thereafter things quietened down and little that was new was added for several decades.

It was the foresight of Sir Ian Richmond, an archaeologist who had made a study of the Baths, that inspired a renewed effort. In 1963 Richmond encouraged the setting up of the Bath Excavation Committee, of which I was appointed director. Alongside carrying out rescue excavations we decided to focus on completing Richmond’s work on the Baths and to begin a new study of the Temple. The first stage of this programme was published in a scholarly monograph, Roman Bath (1969), and a popular account, Roman Bath Discovered (first edition, 1971). A few years later, encouraged by the city’s farsighted chief