Shadows and Footprints

By Rick Ruja

The history of the American West includes a sorry story of abuse and domination of Native Americans by the United States government and its enforcement arm, the U.S. Army. The destruction of the life style and autonomy of indigenous people has resulted in denying to Native Americans “life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness” even t

• Language: English
• Publisher: URLink Print & Media, LLC
• Release date: Mar 18, 2020
• ISBN: 9781647532864

Rick Ruja

He was born in Los Angeles of Jewish parents, growing up with a love of the outdoors--swimming in the Pacific Ocean, hopping a freight train that followed the Colorado River from its headwaters and climbing Wyoming's Grand Tetons. He was encouraged to enter medical school, practicing emergency medicine until a serious illness caused him to return to writing historical novels of America's West. A Native woman of Wailaki and Yuki heritage revealed to the author the suppressed history of this massive rubout of Northern California's indigenous people during the time period, 1849-1870. RR

Book preview

Shadows

and

Footprints

RICK RUJA

Shadows and Footprints

Copyright © 2021 by Rick Ruja. All rights reserved.

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any way by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopy, recording or otherwise without the prior permission of the author except as provided by USA copyright law.

The opinions expressed by the author are not necessarily those of URLink Print and Media.

1603 Capitol Ave., Suite 310 Cheyenne, Wyoming USA 82001

1-888-980-6523 | [e-mail]

URLink Print and Media is committed to excellence in the publishing industry.

Book design copyright © 2021 by URLink Print and Media. All rights reserved.

Published in the United States of America

Library of Congress Control Number: 2020906314

ISBN 978-1-64753-285-7 (Paperback)

ISBN 978-1-64753-286-4 (Digital)

23.12.20

Contents

The Premise

A Defender of the Homeland

The Voice of Sitting Bull

Prologue

Glossary

Chapter 1: Bringing Light To A Dark Forest

Chapter 2: Westward Ho!

Chapter 3: A Wind From The East

Chapter 4: The Exercise Of Power

Chapter 5: A New Spring, A New World

Chapter 6: Sweet Horizons

Chapter 7: The Use Of Crow Power

Chapter 8: A Turn To The West

Chapter 9: Armageddon Approaches

Chapter 10: The Year Of Decision

Chapter 11: A Time For War, A Time To Kill

Chapter 12: A Time To Gather Stones Together

Chapter 13: Dreams Of Sanctuary

Chapter 14: The Path To Sanctuary

BOOK TWO:

ADVENTURES IN CANADA

Chapter 15: New Beginnings

Chapter 16: Sweet Music, Canadian Sunsets

Chapter 17: Conclusion—The Truth Will Set You Free

Dominion of Canada Joint Session of Parliament

Footnotes

Bibliography

The Premise

The archives of Nineteenth Century history are well documented with the success of White America in gaining dominance over the indigenous people who had inhabited continental America for millennia. The Euro-Americans, possessing a technologically advanced culture, refused to share the land with the Native Americans. What factors would have had to obtain to allow even one tribe to maintain their physical independence and cultural autonomy in the presence of the aggressive forces of the United States?

Throughout history there have been a few people who were the political leaders of a nation and also possessed the greatest fund of knowledge along with the wisest judgment of any other person of their time. Someone with these attributes would have had a great impact on the development of their society. There are four people from history who come to mind: Alexander the Great, Peter the Great of Russia, Frederick the Great of Prussia and Thomas Jefferson, President of the United States. What if a gifted boy of White ancestry grew up within an Indian tribe at a young age in an environment that offered these indigenous people both physical protection and an area rich in flora and fauna? Could this newcomer teach the hunter-gathers skills that would promote a more modern lifestyle? Would acquiring these White man’s secrets produce an Indian defense force formidable enough to thwart American hegemony? This historical novel explores these possible outcomes.

(The author feels that the Mountain Crow living in Wyoming Territory in the 1800’s would be the tribe most likely to both acquire and utilize the resources necessary to secure their independence.)

A Defender of the Homeland

TECUMSEH WAS A GREAT SHAWNEE CHIEF WHOSE TRIBE LIVED IN THE REGION OF NORTHWESTERN OHIO. PENETRATION BY WHITE SETTLERS INTO THE OHIO VALLEY IN THE EARLY 1800’S INSPIRED THE CHIEF TO CONDUCT A ZEALOUS CAMPAIGN INTO SOUTHERN MID-AMERICA IN AN ATTEMPT TO UNITE THE DISPARATE TRIBES INTO A MILITARY ALLIANCE SUFFICIENT TO MAINTAIN THEIR HOMELAND AND CULTURE FROM DESTRUCTION BY THE POWERFUL EUROPEANS SEEKING THEIR LAND. HE WAS ONE OF THE MOST FAR-SIGHTED, EFFECTIVE LEADERS IN NATIVE AMERICAN HISTORY.

In August of 1810, Tecumseh decided to confront the man he considered to be his greatest enemy, William Henry Harrison, the governor of Indiana Territory. They faced each other in the frontier village of Vincennes on the Wabash River. The Shawnee leader began his speech by denouncing Harrison’s latest attempt to acquire Indian land through deceptive manipulation of local chiefs.

Tecumseh believed that all Indian lands were a jointly held inheritance. The forests and prairies belong to all tribes and no one has the right to sell them on their own, he thundered, Even to each other, much less to strangers. Sell a country! Why not sell the air, the clouds or the great sea? Did not the Great Spirit make them for the use of all his children. from THE MIGHTY CHIEFTAINS, Time-life Books, Alexandria, Virginia

Social Critic Woody Guthrie wrote a song about the America he saw. He had a vision of a country that…he wished it would become:

"As I was walking that ribbon of highway,

I saw above me that endless skyway;

I saw below me that golden valley;

This land was made for you and me."

"I’ve roamed and rambled and I followed my footsteps

From the Redwood forest to the Gulfstream waters

As the fog was lifting a voice was chanting

This land was made for you and me."

"As I went walking I saw a sign there’

And on the sign it said ‘No Trespassing’.

But on the other side it didn’t say nothing,

That side was made for you and me."

"In the shadow of the steeple I saw my people,

By the relief office I seen my people;

As they stood hungry, I stood there asking

Is this land made for you and me?"

"Nobody living can ever stop me,

As I go walking that freedom highway;

Nobody living can ever make me turn back

This land was made for you and me."

THIS LAND IS YOUR LAND

by Woody Guthrie

The Voice of Sitting Bull

"Take the best of the White Man’s Road,

Pick it up and take it with you.

That which is bad, Leave it alone, Cast it away."

"Take the best of the old Indian ways—

Always keep them.

They have been proven for thousands of years.

Do not let them die."

From The Plains Indians of the 20th Century, Iverson, P., ed., p.226

Prologue

One of the most common reasons for serious conflicts between peoples or races is over land ownership and the right of a less powerful group to maintain its cultural way of life without hindrance from a dominant culture. The two statements in the preceding pages by American Indian leaders Tecumseh and Sitting Bull reflect the attitudinal deadlock that led to repeated violent clashes between the native population and the White newcomers. In the land of America from the time of the first European colonists in the early Seventeenth Century to the close of the frontier by the beginning of the Twentieth Century the issue of who would control the continent rested on the intention of White Americans to establish their culture, their government and their Nation "From Sea to Shining Sea". In opposition to Euro-American hegemony were the indigenous people who had inhabited North America for the previous four millennia. Thus, from the time of Jamestown and the Pilgrims and for more than two-hundred years thereafter the Native Americans were forced to defend their homeland against an advanced civilization from Europe. They were hopelessly overmatched by a people whose technological and organizational skills made the historical conflict a one-sided affair.

What detracted further from any hope of mutual accommodation between the two cultures was the belief system of these newcomers. Armed with the Christian religion, the White Americans felt anointed as God’s chosen ones who deserved privileges to which indigenous people were not entitled. This religious doctrine justified the Whites in refusing to share any of the resources of this rich and spacious land. The non-Europeans were looked upon as beyond the pale of humanity, a people without value. They were savages that needed to be removed.

Studying the account of this extended clash can be distressing to a reader with moral perspective. The litany of atrocities perpetrated against American Indians can yank a Twenty-First Century historian off his comfortable seat of objectivity.

Today, most Native Americans still suffer from the effects of their military defeats and tribal submission to White governmental control over the past two-hundred years. Most indigenous people are faced with minimal educational opportunities. They lack the political power necessary to influence the national and local governments stemming from the divisiveness of intertribal disunity.

Their reservations were established on land mostly devoid of natural resources or water. The Government made one mistake in Indian Territory (Oklahoma). In 1907, a glut of oil was found on the Creek Reservation. Rather than share this life-changing resource with all people who lived in the Territory, the land was declared open for Whites to settle. Sooners (White people) claimed the land and its valuable resources that should have been shared with the Five Tribes as reparations for centuries of abuse.

A historical study of this succession of injustices inflicted on the indigenous populations within the United States has provided the impetus for this book’s premise and conclusion.

The compelling question facing the author was "How could a group of indigenous people have successfully preserved their autonomy in spite of the cultural and technical superiority of the opposition?

This book is primarily a work of non-fiction seasoned with a pinch of fiction that offers a plausible alternative to the fate of the Mountain Crow tribe of Wyoming Territory. While imaginative, the ending is realistic enough to permit justice to prevail in the hearts of the fair-minded. Did all events unfold in precisely this way? In a better world, with values held by most of today’s Americans, where right makes might more often than does the reverse, historical justice in the Nineteenth Century might have prevailed.

RR

Glossary

1) Absaroka: Another name for Crow. It is pronounced AB-SÁUR-KUH. Some refer to the Crow as the Bird People, with Absaroka, a place, as Land of the Bird People where the Children of the Big-Beaked Bird live.

2) Adonai: A Jewish word for God.

3) AHO: In the Crow dialect means thank you or amen according to the context.

4) Arapaho: Buffalo-hunting tribe located in and around Colorado and eastern Wyoming. Usually, allied with Cheyenne and Lakota.

5) Arkansas Toothpick: long dagger-like knife, good for hand-to-hand combat or as superb throwing weapon. Second in popularity to the Bowie Knife.

6) Axilla: anatomical term for armpit.

7) Baaschiíle: Crow term for White man (person with yellow eyes).

8) "Big Fifty": another name for the Sharp’s Drop Block rifle used, primarily, by White buffalo-hunters. Caliber is .44-90; very powerful impact on target.

9) Blackfeet Confederation: Powerful tribe located in the northwestern U.S. and Canada. Composed of three divisions: the Blood, the Piegan and the Siksika. Enemies of Whites and nearly all neighboring tribes.

10) Blackfoot: One of the seven Sioux/Teton/Lakota tribes.

11) Blow the Whistle: The use of an Eagle bone as a whistle, given to the best warriors to blow in battle for inspiration.

12) Blue Coats: Indian name for U.S. infantry.

13) Blue Flag (wild iris): a perennial flower that grows in damp, marshy areas of North America, including Wyoming and southern Alberta. Used by Native healers to treat skin conditions, serious, superficial wounds and to aid digestion in debilitated patients.

14) Booshway’s Bluechip: in mountain man vernacular, a booshway was the field leader, the man who oversaw discipline and planning within his group. Bluechip indicates the best. The phrase denotes the best a man can do.

15) Boudin-eaters: Derogatory term from fur-trappers referring to the Plains Indians’ frantic ingestion of buffalo intestines, usually raw. Many of the Indians were nearly starving; thus when a buffalo was taken, they were sometimes seen gobbling up raw intestines (boudin, in French) without ceremony much to the trappers disgust.

16) Bowie Knife: America’s most sought-after knife. Created by Arkansas blacksmith James Black in the 1830’s, it was a piece of steel cutlery without peer for its size and strength. The weapon was made for James Bowie, a noted knife-fighter who died in the Alamo after putting the knife to good use.

17) Boychik: Jewish affectionate term for a male. Like kiddo.

18) Brulé: One of the seven Teton tribes.

19) Bushwhack: To attempt to assassinate someone while in hiding or when his back is turned.

20) Calico: plain-weave cotton fabric imported into England in the 17th century.

21) Cayuse: Cold wind from the east. Also a small tribe of Washington Territory Indians who developed a fast horse: the Cayuse Racer.

22) Cheyenne: Tribe inhabiting the north and eastern High Plains. Allied with Lakota and Arapaho, and enemies of the Crow. Known as the Red Talkers or People of a different speech. Originally, raised crops around western Great Lakes, but like the Dakota, were chased on to the Plains by the Chippewa and the White Americans

23) Chile or Nigger: in mountain man parlance a term of endearment (!) as opposed to pork-eters or greenhorns. Many ex-slaves ran away into the Rockies and, as long as they played by the trappers’ rules and had mountain-friendly skills were welcomed into the trapper fraternity. Whites calling other Whites nigger was NOT an insult.

24) Chinook : strange, but welcome warm wind from the west that, when blowing, has power to shorten winter or, at least, to melt much of the confining ice in the northwest area of the U.S.

25) "Chiseler": Humorous name for small mammals like squirrels, chipmunks and prairie dogs that hoard food they sometimes acquire from humans.

26) Cimarron: A loner whether animal or human. A maverick; someone who goes their own way. Another name for the Big Horn Sheep.

27) Cojones: Spanish term for male testicles; it indicates a person with balls, guts, nerve.

28) Comfrey Root (knitbone): used in Native medicine for a thousand years to treat musculoskeletal injuries. The plant grows in marshy areas. The plant from the roots, the rhizomes and leaves is laced with medicinally-active substances (mixed with bear oil).

29) Conestoga Wagon: 24 foot long wagon used for moving people and cargo into the west in the early 1800’s. Made near Pittsburgh. A stable vehicle when crossing rivers or rocky trails. Deep-seated floor design kept cargo in place. Could arry up to 10,000 pounds. Wheels reinforced with iron belts.

30) Coulée: jagged ditch left over from flash floods usually in arid parts of the Great Plains—Dakotas, Montana.

31) Death Phrases: Gone South (Cheyenne), Over the Pines (a Teton term), Go to the Sand Hills (Blackfeet and Crow), Goin’ to Meet my Maker, to Cash in my Chips (White frontiersman), Gone Under (mountain man term); Northwest Calif. tribes used West of the setting sun" to indicate a death.

32) Debridement: a medical term referring to clearing a wound of devitalized tissue or foreign objects contaminating the area. Without this treatment open wounds develop infections and will not heal.

33) Dew Cloth: protective covering outside the tipi flap.

34) Dust Devil: a whirlwind containing sand or dust less than ten feet in height that can appear suddenly on Plains or desert. Some Native people believe spirits are moving within the column.

35) "Fat Cow from Poor Bull": mountain-man lingo indicating the discernment between something of value (Fat Cow) and something valueless (poor bull). Phrase comes from the difference in amount of meat between a desirable plump female bison and a sinewy bull (avoided in summer).

36) Flathead (AKA Salish): tribal name means people. They lived west of the Continental Divide in Idaho and Washington. Enemies of the Blackfeet as were nearly everyone.

37) "Flipper-do": Tennessee slang for a crazy person, someone a hay bale short of a full load.

38) Four Winds or Four Directions: A ceremony using a long sacred pipe to honor the elements that Native Americans believe control their life. By reciting the ritual a bond or connection is made between the tribe or group of people and the ubiquitous spirits. A Chief or Shaman follows a particular sequence when honoring the sky, then the earth, then the east, south, west and north in that order

39) Gangrene: a condition of tissue necrosis or cell death that can develop in the absence of circulating blood and oxygen resulting in uncontained spread of infection to the surrounding healthy parts of the body. Cellular garbage accumulates overwhelming the body’s ability to defend itself. If not brought under control the body part and possibly the entire organism will die.

40) "Gee-Gaws": desirable trade items brought to the Natives for their inspection by White traders. Such trinkets as blue beads, an iron cooking pot or simple Calico dresses might be included.

41) George Catlin: One of the earliest and finest painters of life within the Rocky Mountains in the early 1800’s. By the 1830’s his canvasses of Indian village life and portraits of famous Native leaders decorated eastern museums.

42) Gingham: cotton fabric, similar to Calico, with characteristic plaid color designs made into dresses.

43) Grand Tetons: (big breasts in French) majestic mountains located in Wyoming.

44) Grandfather: a word used by the Plains Indians to designate the Creator, (e.g. Wakan Tanka, Old Man Coyote)

45) Gros Ventre (AKA, Atsina): A tribe loosely affiliated with the Blackfeet Confederation, located in western Montana and Canada. They hunted mountain game as well as bison.

46) "Hair a’ the Bear": Mountain-man expression referring to a man who knows no fear, possessing bull-dog courage when faced with adversity.

47) Hand Guns: (the best and most common) ….to follow.

48) 1838 .36 Texas Paterson Colt revolver: Colt’s first effective six-shot revolver used primarily by the Texas Rangers

49) 1848 Walker Colt: .44 caliber; powerful handgun; drawback includes tendency of handgun to explode in your hand when fired with injurious results.

50) Model 1860 Colt .44 Army revolver: best handgun in America for its time.

51) 1873 Colt "Peacemaker": .44 caliber, Single-Action Army aka Frontier version. Sturdy, reliable; best handgun of its time.

52) Hunk Papa: One of the seven tribes of the Teton Confederation. Sitting Bull was its most famous member.

53) "Ka-Hay, Sho’o Daa Chí": Crow greeting and farewell. The sound of the greeting is similar to those of other tribes (e.g., Both Lakota and Navaho use Yah-a-Teh). *An interesting fact to ponder: In the Japanese language the word for peace is "Wa-hei! Wa-hei, Ka-Hay", "Yah-a-Teh"…interesting!

54) Lakota: current name for a large group of Plains Indians who have historically passed through the following name changes: Dakota, Sioux, Teton.

55) Lander Cut-off: short cut from South Pass to Fort Hall.

56) Leggings: deerskin leg covers worn below the breechclout (underwear). Worn by Indians and some Mountain-men.

57) Lewis and Clark: In 1804, Meriwether Lewis and William Clark were the first White explorers to begin a round-trip course through the land of the Louisiana Purchase. The journey was commissioned by President Thomas Jefferson to ascertain the topography, the flora, fauna and the veracity of many legends held by some in this newly acquired land. The President also wished to find a practical trade route to the Far East. ‘O, the joy’, exclaimed Clark, when initially sighting the Pacific Ocean.

58) Long Arms (best and most common in the 1800’s):

59) 1819 Hall flintlock-rifle: Breech loader, partially rifled for greater accuracy than the musket. Shooter can load weapon from a prone position rather than standing exposed in plain sight while loading.

60) Colt Model 1855 Revolving Rifle: Introduced to U.S. Army in 1855. Its cylinder held six cartridges. The resting cartridges had a tendency to ignite prematurely, thwarting the Army’s acceptance of the weapon. However, it was completely rifled, an advance in long-arm accuracy.

61) 1861-1862 Henry Repeater: Saw action during early Civil War period. Octagonal brass barrel came with a magazine containing multiple cartridges. Cocking the lever advanced new cartridge into the chamber.

62) 1862 Spencer Repeater: More robust than the Henry; fired a larger bullet and had a magazine with greater capacity.

63) 1866 .45 Springfield Carbine: used by American infantry; easy loading, completely rifled, very accurate, but a single-shot weapon. Improved version was called Trapdoor Springfield.

64) 1876 Winchester Repeating rifles: Lever-action; best repeater of its time. 1873 Model chambered a .44 caliber bullet in a 15-round magazine who some thought had insufficient stopping power (mainly buffalo hunters). 1876 version used a .45-60 bullet that satisfied all. RCMP bought all they could find. Dubbed the Rifle that Won the West.

65) Sharps Dropping Block: A single shot rifle with great hitting power, popular with buffalo hunters. Powerful impact on target. While the muzzle velocity was an ordinary 1250 ft./sec., the force of impact was an impressive 1631 ft./lb. enough to bring down any beast. (Dubbed the Big Fifty).

66) "Macher": A big shot, a man with connections, a fixer. (Yiddish)

67) "Mazel Tov: Hebrew for good luck".

68) "Mehshuggeneh": Crazy, peculiar. (Yiddish)

69) Miniconjou: one of the Lakota sub-tribes. Spotted Elk was a famous chief killed at Wounded Knee.

70) Nez Percé: Powerful tribe in the northwestern part of United States, mainly Washington Territory. (Name means pierced nose in French.) Developed the Appaloosa breed of horse.

71) Oglala: One of the seven tribes of the Teton or Lakota. Red Cloud and Crazy Horse were two of their famous members.

72) The Oregon Trail: It could be called the Oregon-California Trail because so many people decided to settle in California (probably because of weather and economic factors). In 1834 Fort Hall, Idaho Territory was built just to the west of South Pass to support the wagon trains that had begun in Missouri and sought services from Fort Hall.

73) Old Ephraim: Mountain-man nickname for the Grizzly. Silver Tip is another.

74) Osage Orange: (Maclura Pomifera) A tree that grew in the Missouri area whose wood was highly valued in bow-making among Osage and Comanche. They believed the wood was superior to the Yew Tree for crafting bows. The wood and bark had properties that combined strength with flexibility, ideal for the finest bows.

75) Paha Sapa: Lakota word for the Black Hills. They are located in western South Dakota and are geologically unique. At one time in the earth’s history they were the first of the modern mountains in existence! The Hills existed before the Rockies, Himalayas, Alps, Andes or great African ranges were formed. Indian intuition identified Paha Sapa as sacred.

76) Palaver: To talk or negotiate casually. Used by fur-trapper and men of the West.

77) Parfleche: Tough hide of buffalo or horse used as wrapping to preserve food made by Indians and fur-trappers. Alkaline substances can shrink and toughen the hide giving it a water-proof quality. Also can be used as covering for war shields so tough they can stop a musket ball or an arrow from reaching the human target.

78) Pawnee: Tribe inhabiting Platte River Valley, primarily, Nebraska. Sioux, Arapaho, and Cheyenne were its enemies. By the 1850’s they adopted same strategy as River Crow by allying with White soldiers and settlers for protection. A famous line in the classic Indian western, "Little Big Man", has the main White character, Jack Crabb, portrayed by Dustin Hoffman complain, The Pawnee was always suckin’ up to the Whites.

79) Pemmican: Powdered buffalo or deer meat, with gristle removed, herbs and berries added, then covered in bear oil and wrapped in parfleche. If prepared properly can be edible for years. Used by Indians and trappers.

80) Passover/Pesach: A Jewish holiday celebrating the escape of the Jews from slavery in biblical Egypt. Leaders were Moses, Aaron and Joshua. After Moses received the Ten Commandments in 1313 b.c.e. from God on Mt. Sinai and gave them to the Jewish people waiting below, this momentous event represented the beginning of Judaism as an organized religion. Prior to receiving this guideline for living, Jews practiced their beliefs as individuals.

81) "Phil-doodle": A Drugstore cowboy, a person trying to act out a role he’s not qualified for; e.g., a wrangler at nut-cuttin’ time, who can’t cut it.

82) "Pork-eater: fur-trapper designation for a greenhorn", someone new to the ways of the Rocky Mountains, a refugee from the flatland below.

83) Pus or purulent material: Debris from an infected wound in form of liquid or chunky cellular waste following body’s attempt to destroy foreign invaders. Waste needs to be removed for wound to heal.

84) Quirt: short rawhide thong used to sting horse into a faster gait. It was usually attached to an antelope horn fastened to the saddle.

85) RCMP: Royal Canadian Mounted Police was, originally, the law enforcement agency for the Dominion of Canada.

86) The Red Road: Probably a Dakota term for the preferred direction of travel within their territory. The Ojibwa and the Whites chased the Sioux out of Minnesota on to the Great Plains. Another Dakota enemy was the Crow to the West. Thus, the need to travel an east/west road indicated danger. A North/South direction for the Dakota was preferred for safety. In another usage, the Red Road could also be taken to mean remaining true to your heritage.

87) Rhizomes: fine threads and tangles that come from the roots of plants. Primary location where medicinal substances are stored. Dried, powdered medicines found could be used in treating ailments.

88) Roached: A hair-style characterized by a fullness of hair-in-place down the scalp’s center with the sides shaven clean. Misnamed Mohawk.

89) Salty Dog: a New England-derived term referring to anyone exceptionally competent at his work, plus a tough fella’, in the bargain. A reliable man full of vim and vinegar.

90) San Arcs: One of the seven Teton/Lakota tribes.

91) Schlemiel: A fool, a social misfit (Yiddish).

92) Septic Shock: a medical condition where the body is unable to localize an infection and becomes overwhelmed with germs and their poisons causing a precipitous fall in blood pressure that impairs all organ systems throughout the body. Death occurs unless the condition is rapidly reversed.

93) shaganappi: Rawhide strip or thong, frequently plaited, often brined for toughness. Useful for tying or binding objects together.

94) Shalom: Hebrew for peace, goodbye, hello".

95) Shaman: Indian healer or medicine man.

96)"Shinin’" Mountains: mountain-man slang for the Rocky Mountains.

97) Shlepper: a bum, beggar, a thief. (Yiddish)

98) Shoshone or Snake Indians: a tribe originally living west of the Continental Divide in an unfertile area of the Great Basin. During buffalo-hunting season they faced the dangerous Blackfeet tribe in reaching the Plains. Between their barren land and lack of weaponry they were weaker than their neighbors. Later, some bold members crossed the Divide for better access to the buffalo. Their courage was rewarded when they settled in the Southern Plains and formed the mighty Comanche tribe.

99) Shtarker: A strong, brave man; a man’s man. (Yiddish)

100) Shul: school, usually indicates religious school. (German)

101) sinew: name for rope-like structures—ligaments, tendons and fascia—that tie muscles to bony protuberances.

102) Sioux: Along with the name Dakota, probably, one of the most common designations for a group of Indians composed of the 7 Teton tribes, the Santée of Minnesota and the Yanktonnai. Today, they are called Lakota.

103) "snows": time designation—e.g., akin to seasons or years.

104) Sun Dance: A religious ceremony commonly practiced by Blackfeet, Crow, Teton, Arapaho and Cheyenne. Rituals could last for up to a week. Usually, takes place in the summer. The goal is to bring together the tribes and the spirits that guide the Indian world, to close the Sacred Hoop.

105) Sun Dog: A pale rainbow spot in the winter sky of northwestern America caused by sunlight illuminating ice crystals. They can herald the onset of a weather change. Many superstitious Blackfeet view this dramatic appearance as an indication of impending danger.

106) South Pass: The key passageway through the Rockies that accommodated wheeled vehicles. Originally discovered by James Clyman, Jedediah Smith and Thomas (broken hand) Fitzpatrick in 1824. It is described as a saddle a flat spot between neighboring high peaks. South Pass’ elevation is 7142 ft. Bonneville led the first expedition through the Pass involving wagons in 1834.

107) Teton Confederation: became dominant group of tribes on the north-central Great Plains after the Dakota were ousted from Minnesota.

108) Two Kettles: one of the 7 tribes of the Teton Confederation.

109) Ute: Along with the Apache, probably the first American Indians to acquire horses from the Spanish. The Ute lived in eastern Utah and western Colorado.

110) "Whispering Bells": Yellow flowers that can cling vine-like and when dried can provide a pleasant rustling sound upon being stirred by the breeze.

111) "Wild Bill" Hickok: U.S. Army scout during the Civil War, he became a lawman whose six-gun protected citizens from drunk cowboys. James Butler Hickok as Marshall of Abilene, Kansas was a dead shot and fearless. Sadly, he was murdered in Deadwood, South Dakota, shot in the back playing poker. He was holding two pair: Aces and eights, now known as the ‘Deadman’s hand’.

112) Wintergreen (Gaultheria procumbens): Plant commonly prepared as a tea. Contains salicylates, an Aspirin-like substance, used as a pain-reliever in Native healing

113) Wolf Society: Among tribes who lived on the Great Plains these societies served as an enforcement group that retained control against internal forces that threatened the smooth-functioning of tribal life

114) Yarrow plant: Very common, very effective tool in the native pharmacopeia for reducing fevers and in healing wounds.

115) Yellow Legs: Indian slang for U.S. Cavalry because of yellow stripes running down their legs.

CHAPTER ONE

BRINGING LIGHT TO A DARK FOREST

By 1820, Northeastern America was on the move. With the conclusion of three wars with European powers—The 1763 French and Indian War, the War of Independence with the British in 1781, and the War of 1812-14 when Britain tried again to sneak in the back door down in New Orleans—western migration over the Appalachian Mountains and into the Ohio Valley had increased reflecting the growing population of the United States. Immigrants mainly from Europe were arriving on our shores with every inbound ship that anchored in Boston, Philadelphia, Baltimore, New Orleans or Galveston, Texas. The British presence had retreated above the St. Lawrence River into the colony of Canada.

The Chicago River, a tributary of the Illinois River, was a series of streams and canals that provided a connection between Mississippi River tributaries and Lake Michigan after passing through most of historic Chicago. In fact, the strategic location of the waterway permitted travel between eastern population centers and the openings to the American West, the reason Chicago was built there.

In 1825, there were 102 Americans living in the frontier town of Chicago. Two of the early settlers were a newly-wedded couple just having arrived from the east coast via the recently completed Erie Canal. The latter was the first waterway to connect the Atlantic coastal cities with Chicago without having river travelers use a portage to circumvent a river obstruction.

The young husband was a Jewish physician who had just graduated from Yale Medical College. Dr. Nathaniel Jacobsen was accompanied by his French-born wife Sofia. He had chosen to settle in this rustic community because of his need to explore; Nathan had a keen mind that thrived on discovering what lay behind the events and the natural design of life. He had a genius for being astonished. From homunculi, wee creatures that skittered around the slides he viewed under his microscope to the new lands opened up with the Louisiana Purchase, the world’s mysteries were fair game for a probing mind. And with the penetration of White people into the incompletely explored western lands, Jacobsen wished to experience Nature unfettered by the confines of civic communities and their plethora of regulations.

A war between the races over land ownership wasn’t the only confrontation occurring in the United States. Among a few curious physicians new beliefs were challenging traditional concepts of medical treatment. At Yale, as a new thinker, Dr. Jacobsen butted heads with the medical college’s founder Dr. Benjamin Rush. For example, if a patient complained of dizziness and subsequently, fainted, the doctor might institute a regimen based on the belief that the cause of this dysfunction was the presence of poisonous humours within the blood that needed to be removed. This was done using metal lancets (nonsterile, of course) that punctured the patient’s skin permitting the physician to withdraw more blood and with it the humours poisoning his patient. Unfortunately, physicians had little understanding of why people became ill. In this case, the physician was exacerbating the illness by increasing the patient’s state of dehydration and introducing foreign material into the body, as well.

Jacobsen objected to promoting beliefs that had been handed down through the ages without employing the scientific method including experiment. He also, felt intuitively uncomfortable using instruments that he knew had little creatures living on them, even though he did not know what precise effect they had on the human body. Nathaniel defied many traditional medical beliefs, referring to them as wives’ tales. Dr. Rush chastised his student, suggesting that he refrain from criticizing practitioners having more experience than he had.

Nathaniel Jacobsen entered Yale in 1817, seven years after the college opened. He was a tall, thin man whose brown eyes were in constant motion. He tended to lean forward both standing and walking. This posture combined with his restless demeanor reminded his fellows of the insect, the Praying Mantis.

He had to take care not to bring his conflicts home with him when he visited his fiancée, Sofia. She was a petite young woman with a patient, generous heart who sought to soothe Nathaniel whenever he fussed about the reluctance of his instructors to consider alternative interpretations of disease. She was a country girl who grew up in southern France where her family grew grapes and created fine wines from their vineyards in Bordeaux. She had to manage her driven boyfriend without assistance since his parents lived in London, involved in the jewelry and chemistry businesses.

Her sweet personality and sense of humor made her quite popular with friends her age. She had ash-blond hair and a delicate figure that was hidden within the Victorian clothing that were de rigueur for the time. Her billowing blouses and thick pleated dresses were interrupted by a wasp-like waist that was a feature of the outfit. Her friends claimed she looked like a human hour-glass and threatened to turn her on her head to see whether form fit function. Her friends enjoyed finding the humor in life in contrast to Nathan’s sober pursuit of truth which left little room for mirth. The good-natured threats to reposition Sofia provoked her squeals when she sought to flee from her playful comrades.

The couple discussed locations that were likely to permit Jacobsen the freedom to use both his medical intuition and treatment alternatives without interference from local physicians.

Would my adventurous wife be willing to explore the shadows and foot prints hidden within the mysterious forests that surround the Great Lakes region? The town of Chicago is nearby.

"Where my husband chooses to go, his wife is duty-bound to follow, n’est-ce pas?" (isn’t that right?)

In spite of his reputation, Jacobsen completed his medical training with honors. His acumen in diagnosing patients and the physical dexterity he demonstrated during surgical procedures countered the perception by instructors that this iconoclast might experience confrontations with other colleagues in his future practice. Upon leaving Yale he felt he had just escaped from confinement in a medical Devil’s Island.

On June 20, 1824 friends celebrated the Jacobsen wedding in Connecticut, although their parents were unable to attend. Their post-nuptials began when they caught the Erie Canal at Albany on the Hudson River climbing aboard a packet boat. The boats provided the travelers with protection from the elements. The canal flowed past bucolic western New York until it reached Lake Ontario. A further connection to Lake Erie followed to the west then a tangle of streams emptied into Lake Huron. The latter ran into the northern end of Lake Michigan.

The Jacobsen’s were surprised when they landed at the primitive port of Chicago whose facilities still were under construction, the pier literally, crawling with carpenters on their knees hammering and sawing planks to reinforce the port walkways. Another crew was sinking pilings around the wharf to extend the docking facilities. Although the adjacent marsh was being drained, Sofia identified several Sandhill Cranes dredging the bottom of Sauganashkee Slough with their scoop-shaped bills.

Dr. Jacobsen hired a teamster and his wagon to tour the town. Near the wharf they passed a business that sold canned goods, burlap bags containing livestock feed and construction materials like iron piping and loops of rope. William Sabine had a business next door employing teenage girls who crafted colored ovals of needlework using silk thread sown on linen sheets attached to wooden oval borders. The visitors noted Sanford Rathbourn’s grocery store on Lake St. next to Mark Beaubien’s posh Sauganash Hotel. Finally, in the residential section of town the couple found a small home on Hickory St. with a spare room that could be converted into an office. While workmen completed the necessary work in the kitchen and the medical annex, the property owner’s bank secured a loan and other documents to satisfy both parties.

In an emerging town, word of new settlers gets around quickly, especially when a physician moves in. Such a prestigious arrival stirred up the Chicago community. The Jacobsen’s were a bit bewildered, at first, when they heard knocks on the door. Fellow citizens offered them baskets of fruit, bread and salt.

One of the first couples to greet the newcomers who brought an air of sincerity and congeniality to the Jacobsen front steps was Mark Royal and his wife, Abigail. This fortuitous meeting resulted in two couples who found each other’s personalities and interests compatible. For strangers in a strange town, this was an initial blessing for the newlyweds. Another man who took to the Jacobsen’s was David Hall, a neighbor on Hickory St., who, although single, enjoyed the company of people. He owned the Wolf Point Tavern, located near the wharf. He promptly invited the room full of cordial neighbors to his social club, a spacious log cabin with enough amenities to satisfy half of Chicago. Tonight, both libation and tasty snacks were on the house. He called his joint The House of Celebration. A long mahogany bar provided elbow room for those inclined to imbibe strong spirits. On most occasions the kitchen could supply a light repast or a plate of hors d’oeuvres. There was a section of the café where sofas and round tables welcomed game and card playing or simply a quiet place to chat or read a book. The tavern had a deck overlooking Lake Michigan protected by a pine overhang sheltering the tables out back. Torches along the decks’ periphery provided light and heat from six to nine p.m. on most evenings.

While the initial comradery offered the Jacobsen’s a friendly introduction to Chicago, they found out soon enough that the baskets filled with welcome gifts sometimes harbored subtle signs of antipathy beneath the red and white cloth cover. Anti-Semitism flourished in a town that clung closely to traditional American beliefs. As time went on, the Jacobsen’s understood why they received the cold-shoulder from those who they thought were friends.

The physicians of Chicago and Fort Dearborn consisted of two surgeons and three general practitioners who found the new doctor’s habit of hand washing and his inclination to practice many forms of non-traditional medicine to be disconcerting in spite of his glowing reputation as a Yale graduate. However, after his interventions had been seen to be surprisingly effective with certain patient conditions that defied standard treatment the local physicians grudgingly accepted this iconoclast’s contributions to patient care. He became the designated emergency physician, when an illness proved baffling to the others.

On a balmy Sunday in June, the Jacobsen’s were reading together on their blue sofa in the living room after finishing a breakfast of eggs and flapjacks. The room’s walls were painted robin’s egg blue to match the lovely rug that added luster to the living room and the parlor. A wedding gift from Sofia’s parents, Persian rugs from the Ottoman Empire had declined in availability from the political turmoil plaguing both countries. Recently, however, the Qajar Dynasty in Persia had revived the exportation of fine floor coverings to England and France. Their parents’ gift was a large one—sixteen by twelve feet. It was an expertly crafted carpet woven with wool taken from the neck of Persian sheep that received preferential care. It was a quality material known as kurk wool. A feature of this Sultanabad Persian Ziegler design was the blue and pale rose center that covered three-quarters of the carpet and was decorated with oblong and floral patterns. Surrounding the interior on four sides was a two-foot wide swath of color with a lemon-peel hue. Both Sofia and Nat sat engrossed in their favorite read, adventure stories that had thematic lines of a fantasy genre to them. Sofia was reading The Legend of Sleepy Hollow and Nathaniel had plunged into the hair-raising Frankenstein..

Just then, the urgent gait of a horse and buggy driven by a rider wielding a wild whip stirred up the gravel in their driveway. Sofia answered the knock on the door to face a disheveled soldier from Fort Dearborn, short of breath and sweating profusely, while he nervously wrung his cap into a dish rag.

A becoming smile greeted the messenger. "Oui, Private. May I help you?"

Excuse me, Ma’am, I need ta’ speak ta’ Doc Jacobsen. It’s dad-gum important.

Sofia returned to the foyer, singing out, "Pour vous, cherie."(for you, dear).

Nathaniel walked to the entrance, a sober look on his face. How can I be of service, Private?

The soldier resumed strangling his cap. Well, sir. The Fort’s in an uproar. Captain Wedemeyer’s son dun come down with a rash. And them ‘sawbones’ is arguin’ over its meanin’. Some say it’s Small pox or chicken pox or turkey trot or what not. I jus’ know that ma’ ass’ll be in a sling right promptly if I don’ bring ya’ back there in record time. Colonel Tench said, ‘Get Doc Jacobsen over here and quick, Private, else you’ll be sleepin’ with the mules tonight and eatin’ barley out of a feedbag. Please, Doc, could we get a move on? Nathaniel ran inside, and grabbed his medical bag, hollering to Sofia: Crisis at the Fort, hon.

The horse and buggy stormed out of the driveway, its wheels spittin’ gravel.

The Doc was in for a wild ride along an unpredictable rustic road. The driver whipped the mare into a gallop. When they came to a bend in the road the whole kit and caboodle nearly turned over. Nat was holding on for dear life. Was this worth a mysterious red rash? he wondered. Fortunately, the Fort wasn’t far away. They shot through the open gates finally, coming to a halt in front of the Commanding Officer’s headquarters. The compound had the feel of a fortress under siege with sentries walking alert routes