Understanding Living Islam: Spirituality, Structures, Society and Sects

By Patrick Sookhdeo

Understanding Living Islam is a detailed study of the practices, family life, social structures, spirituality and sects of Muslims today. It includes extensive quotations from Islamic sources throughout the ages, covering conservative and political Islam to folk Islam and mysticism This book is especially suitable for those seeking an in-depth understanding of the rich variety of what Muslims believe and how they live now. A companion to Understanding Islamic Theology.

• Language: English
• Publisher: BookBaby
• Release date: Mar 1, 2021
• ISBN: 9781952450020

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Understanding Living Islam

Title

Understanding Living Islam: Spirituality, Structures, Society and Sects

Copyright © 2020 Patrick Sookhdeo

Published in the United States by

Isaac Publishing

1934 Old Gallows Road, Suite 350

Vienna VA 22182

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of the publisher except in brief quotations in written reviews.

Please see ‘Note on Main Islamic Sources’ on page ix for copyright information on quotations from the Islamic sources.

Library of Congress Control Number: 2020933710

ISBN 978-1-952450-02-0

Interior design and layout by Words Plus Design

Printed in the United States of America

Contents

Acknowledgments

Note on Main Islamic Sources

Introduction

1 The Five Pillars of Islam

2 Jihad – the Sixth Pillar

3 Islam as a Political Phenomenon

4 Apostasy and Blasphemy in Islam

5 Home and Family Life

6 Islamic Sects

7 Sufism

8 Folk Islam

Sources

Glossary

Qur’anic Surahs in Alphabetical Order

Qur’anic Surahs in Numerical Order

Qur’an Index

Hadith Index

Index

Acknowledgments

This work began more than twenty years ago with the vision of creating a comprehensive teaching resource on Islam. Over the years the initial text has been developed, expanded and refined with the help of many colleagues and the assistance of experts from around the world. It was only made possible by their diligence, cooperation and shared concern that Islam as a phenomenon should be clearly presented that it might be rightly understood.

The author is conscious, however, that mistakes may remain, either of fact or nuance, and would welcome corrections (communicated via the publisher).

Note on Main Islamic Sources

Consistent with the aim of Understanding Living Islam, as set out in the introduction to this three volume series, we have tried to turn first to the primary sources. Quotations from the Qur’an are taken from the first edition of A. Yusuf Ali’s The Holy Qur’an: Text, Translation and Commentary (Leicester: The Islamic Foundation 1975), unless otherwise stated. This edition uses the word ‘God’ where some later editions use ‘Allah’. Quotations from the hadith collections ‘Sahih Al-Bukhari’, ‘Sahih Muslim’, ‘Abu Dawud’,i ‘Al Muwatta’ and ‘Al-Tirmidhi’ are taken from the CD-ROM Alim (ISL Software Corporation, 2000), which is now available on the website Alim.org (http://www.alim.org/library/hadith). Consultation has also been made with the print version of hadith collections: Al-Muwatta, English translation by ‘A’isha ‘Abdarahman at-Tarjumana and Ya’qub Johnson, published by Diwan Press; Sunan Abu Dawud, English translation by Ahmad Hasan, published in Lahore by Sh. Muhammad Ashraf in 1984 and reprinted in 1996; Sahih Muslim, English translation by ‘Abdul Hamid Siddiqi, the eighth edition, published in New Delhi by Kitab Bhavan in 1990. Quotations from Mishkat Al-Masabih are from James Robson’s translation of Sh. Muhammad Asraf’s version.

Shari‘ah quotations are taken from Charles Hamilton’s translation of The Hedaya (or ‘Guide’) as examples of Hanafi law. Quotations from ‘Abdullah ibn Abi Zayd Al-Qayrawani’s Al-Risala (Maliki Manual) are taken from the online version of Alhaj Bello Mohammad Daura’s translation, which may be found at http://www.iium.edu.my/deed/lawbase/risalah_maliki/ and https://ia802701.us.archive.org/10/items/TheRisala/TheRisala-ATreatiseOnMalikiFiqh.pdf and http://www.nmnonline.net/e-books/The-Risala-A-Treatise-on-Maliki-Fiqh.pdf. They are also from the print version: F Amira Zrien Matraji’s translation entitled Matn Ar-Risala by Ibn Abi Zayd al-Kairawani published in Beirut by Dar El Fikr in 2010.

Quotations from Fiqh us-Sunnah are taken from Fiqh us-Sunnah, volumes 1 to 5, Indianapolis: American Trust Publications, 1991-1992, reprinted in Riyadh: International Islamic Publishing House [5 volumes bound as one], translated by Muhammad S Dabas, Jamal al-Din M Zarabozo, Abdul-Majid Khokhar and compiled by As-Sayyid Sabiq (1912-2000). This book provides an excellent summary of fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence, the theory of Islamic law), which would otherwise require going through tens of books by Islamic scholars of different schools of thought. It brings together the teachings of the four main schools (madhahib) of Sunni law. The author was a member of the Muslim Brotherhood and wrote this compilation of fiqh at the request of Hassan al-Banna, the founder of the Muslim Brotherhood. The intention was to treat the four objectively, with no preferential treatment being given to any of them. For clarity within this volume, where As-Sayyid Sabiq, the author of Fiqh us-Sunnah, has given a footnote, his footnote text has been inserted within curly brackets {} at the point where the footnote reference is placed. Round () and square brackets [] within quotations from Fiqh us-Sunnah are in As-Sayyid Sabiq’s original.ii

The reader should note that Arabic words can be spelled in a variety of ways when transliterated into languages that use other scripts. This also applies to names of people, places and organisations. Some of the variations are noted in the glossary, but there are many more. In transliteration of Arabic words in this book, the symbol (’) denotes the hamza, and the symbol (‘) denotes the ‘ayn. Diacritical marks have otherwise been omitted for ease of recognition.

Qur’anic references in the main text are given as the surah (chapter) number, followed by a colon and then the number of the ayah (verse) within the chapter. Qur’anic quotations are set out with the number and name of the surah and the number of the ayah as a heading. Many Islamic sources identify surahs by name only (i.e. omitting the number). For the convenience of the reader, there is an alphabetical list of surahs, giving the number of each one alongside the name, on page 481 and a numerical list of surahs, giving the name of each in Arabic and English, on page 487.

Ayah numbers may vary slightly between different translations of the Qur’an. Therefore, if you are not using the Yusuf Ali version, it may be necessary to search in the ayahs just before or just after the number given here to find the text cited.

For quotations included within this book, the spelling and punctuation of the original have been retained.

i Spelled ‘Abu Dawood’ on the Alim website.

ii Elsewhere in this book, square brackets indicate an insertion by this author into a quotation for purposes of definition or clarification.

Introduction

Understanding Living Islam is the second of a three volume series on ‘The World of Islam’. Volume 1, Understanding Islamic Theology, looked at what orthodox Muslims should believe according to classical Islam. Volume 3 will attempt an overview of the global history of Islam. But the present volume aims to communicate how Muslims today live, think and behave in reality; this may be very different from the theology of the learned jurists, and also may be very different from how their Muslim forebears lived, thought and behaved. Of course, theology and history will necessarily figure in this volume also, but the aim is to convey what it is like to be a Muslim today.

That simple-sounding aim is greatly complicated by the vast range of variation within Islam and there has therefore been no option but to generalise and summarise. Equally, it has been necessary to omit many details and variations in practice or belief, because of space considerations. It is hoped that readers will treat such necessities with understanding and forbearance.

Within Islam are many different schools of law and many different sects, some so extreme that only their own members would call themselves Muslims. Thus, Muslims may accuse each other of the heinous crimes of apostasy and blasphemy, either of which can carry the possibility of a deadly penalty in certain parts of today’s world. Within each school or sect, every scholar has his own viewpoint and most have their own group of followers. Cutting across these, like another dimension, are the broad sweeps of political Islam (tipped with violent jihad) and of mystical Islam, both of which can draw their followers from almost every part of the Islamic spectrum.

But everyday life for a devout Muslim, eager to please God, is bounded by a myriad considerations: that which is obligatory; that which is prohibited; and many things which lie between these two extremes, either recommended or frowned on to varying degrees. The five pillars of orthodox Islam, providing for a daily prayer routine, an annual fasting routine and a once-in-a-lifetime pilgrimage, do no more than outline the duties of a good Muslim. In addition are all the minutiae of daily existence: how to get dressed – not just what to wear, but how to don one’s clothes each morning and which shoe to put on first; how to eat – not just the foods to avoid, but how to sit, pray, converse and convey the food to one’s mouth; how to sleep – what to say before sleep and on waking, which direction the bed should face and in which position the sleeper should lie. On top of this, the lives of many Muslims are dominated by the very serious business of folk Islam, with its fearsome supernatural powers of evil to be combated at every turn.

It is this complex and ever-changing reality for contemporary Muslim men, women and families that Understanding Living Islam is attempting to convey.

Chapter 1

The Five Pillars of Islam

The five ‘pillars of Islam’ are the essential religious duties or ‘ibadat of a Muslim. Every Muslim is expected to perform these duties, which are listed in the following hadith:¹

Ibn ‘Umar

SAHIH² AL-BUKHARI, Vol. 1, Book 2, No. 7 Allah’s Apostle said: Islam is based on (the following) five (principles):

1. To testify that none has the right to be worshipped but Allah and that Muhammad is Allah’s Apostle. 2. To offer the (compulsory congregational) prayers dutifully and perfectly. 3. To pay Zakat (i.e. obligatory charity). 4. To perform Hajj (i.e. Pilgrimage to Makkah). 5. To observe fast during the month of Ramadan.

Performing these duties is, in effect, the proof of being a Muslim, as the following hadith about fighting non-Muslims shows:

Ibn ‘Umar

SAHIH AL-BUKHARI, Vol. 1, Book 2, No. 24

Allah’s Apostle said: I have been ordered (by Allah) to fight against the people until they testify that none has the right to be worshipped but Allah and that Muhammad is Allah’s Apostle, and offer the prayers perfectly and give the obligatory charity, so if they perform that, then they save their lives and property from me except for Islamic laws and then their reckoning (accounts) will be done by Allah.

1. The Creed

The profession of the faith (shahadah, meaning ‘testimony’³) in the presence of an eyewitness makes someone a Muslim. The one who makes this profession is called a shahid, a word meaning both ‘witness’ and ‘martyr’. Islam has a short creed, which much be recited in Arabic.⁴ The meaning is:

There is no god but Allah and Muhammad is the prophet of Allah.

Some Shi‘a groups add an extra element about ‘Ali, the son-in-law of Muhammad. This comes at the end after testifying that Muhammad is the prophet (or messenger or apostle) of Allah:

‘Ali is the wali ⁵ of Allah.

Orthodox theologians say that six conditions must be fulfilled before recitation is sufficient to make someone a Muslim:⁶

1. It must be repeated aloud.

2. It must be perfectly understood.

3. It must be believed in the heart.

4. It must be professed till death.

5. It must be recited correctly.

6. It must be professed and declared without hesitation.

However, it is sometimes the case that people are forced to repeat the shahadah (for example, in violent jihad) or even tricked into repeating it without understanding,⁷ and yet some Muslims regard these as valid conversions.

In certain rituals, either the first or the second clause of the shahadah is omitted.⁸ In fact, the second clause is the most important, since the prophethood of Muhammad presumes the uniqueness of the one God, whose message the apostle (or prophet or messenger) delivers. Hence, to affirm the apostleship of Muhammad is the essence of belief in Islam.⁹

Muslims repeat this creed in their set prayer times and at other times during the day, such as during ablutions before praying. The shahadah is recited at birth, death and even as protection against a malevolent spell.¹⁰ The hadith assures the promise of Paradise to anyone making this profession of faith.¹¹ Indeed, the shahadah is the criterion by which one is tested in the grave as to one’s eternal destiny; of course, it must be professed before death as explained in As-Sayyid Sabiq’s Fiqh us-Sunnah which brings together the jurisprudence of the four main schools (madhab) of Sunni Islamic law.

Fiqh us-Sunnah, Fiqh 4.16

It is sunnah to do the following when a person dies:

(1) Advise the dying person to say: "La ilaha illa-Allah (there is no god but Allah). It is narrated on the authority of Abu Sa‘id al-Khudri that the Prophet, peace be upon him, said: Prompt your dying people to say: ‘La ilaha illa-Allah’. Another report on the authority of Mu‘adh ibn Jabal states that the Messenger of Allah, peace be upon him, said: He whose last words are ‘La ilaha illa-Allah’ shall enter Paradise."

{narrated by Abu Daw’ud; Al-Hakim considers it a sound hadith}

This prompting (talqin) is necessary only when the dying person is unable to utter the shahadah (La ilaha illa-Allah …). If such a person is able to utter these words then there is no need for prompting, but he should rather be advised to do so. Such advice is useful in cases of persons who are in possession of their faculties of reason and speech. If one is already mentally impaired such advice cannot be of benefit. But one who is unable to speak might say these words in his heart. The scholars are of the opinion that no pressure should be put on the dying person. So one should not say to him, "Say, ‘La ilaha ill-Allah’," lest he should become annoyed and utter something improper. One may say the shahadah, however, in such a way that the dying person might be able to hear it and repeat it. If he utters it once, he should not be asked to repeat it unless he says some words after it. In such a case he should be asked to repeat shahadah to ensure that it be his last utterance.

Most scholars are of the opinion that one attending a dying person may repeat only the words: "La ilaha illa-Allah, according to the apparent meaning of the hadith. Others are of the opinion that the dying person should be prompted to utter the two testimonies (that is, I bear witness that there is no god but Allah, and I bear witness that Muhammad is His servant and Messenger"). The purpose is to remind him of the Oneness of Allah, which includes both of the two testimonies.¹²

The shahadah can even be recited to the dead.¹³ Professing the shahadah was the key to a slave gaining their freedom.¹⁴ One can imagine what an incentive this was for slaves to convert to Islam. The shahadah is the main substance of the adhan, the call to prayer.¹⁵

2. Prayer

Ritual prayer (salat or salah) plays a large part in the life of a devout Muslim. Prescribed words in Arabic, with ritual movements involving prostration, must be performed five times a day at the following times:

The Qur’an commands regular prayer at particular times of day:

Surah 11 (Hud), ayah 114

114. And establish regular prayers at the two ends of the day and at the approaches of the night…¹⁶

Prayers are compulsory for every Muslim over the age of ten and may be performed alone or in the congregation. There is more merit if they are performed corporately in a mosque. Certain places, like graveyards and lavatories, are considered unclean and thus inappropriate for prayer. Women normally pray at home, but some mosques have special enclosures for them. Outside a mosque one places oneself upon a prayer mat (sajada) for salat.

Preparations and prerequisites for prayer

Prayer is only valid when preceded by ceremonial ablutions called wudu‘ to produce tahara, legal purity. The Qur’an stipulates:

Surah 5 (Maida), ayah 7

7. O ye who believe! When ye prepare for prayer, wash your faces, and your hands (and arms) to the elbows; rub your heads (with water); and (wash) your feet to the ankles…

The Fiqh us-Sunnah references this ayah (Qur’anic verse) and quotes other Islamic sources to confirm the importance of ablutions before prayer,¹⁷ and their power to purify spiritually,¹⁸ even – in combination with prayer – opening the way to Paradise.¹⁹

Fiqh us-Sunnah, Fiqh 1.34A

Praying two rak‘ah after ablution. Abu Hurairah reported that the Messenger of Allah, upon whom be peace, said to Bilal, O Bilal, tell me what good deed you have done in Islam that I hear the sound of your footsteps in Paradise? Bilal said, That after I purify myself during the day or night, I pray with that purification as much as Allah has destined for me. (Related by al-Bukhari and Muslim.) ‘Uqbah ibn ‘Aamr related that the Messenger of Allah, upon whom be peace, said, "If one performs and perfects his ablution and prays two rak‘ah with his heart and face (completely on his prayer), Paradise becomes his." (Related by Muslim, Abu Dawud, Ibn Majah and Ibn Khuzaimah in his Sahih.) Khumran, the client of ‘Uthman, added, "I saw ‘Uthman call for water for ablution, pour it from the pot onto his right hand and wash it three times. He then put his right hand into the container, rinsed his mouth and nose and blew the water out. Then he washed his face three times, followed by his arms up to the elbows. Then he washed his feet three times and said ‘I saw the Messenger of Allah, upon whom be peace, make ablution like this.’ And then he would say, ‘Whoever makes ablution like this and then prays two rak‘ah without having any other concern on his mind, all his past sins will be forgiven.’" (Related by al-Bukhari, Muslim and others.)

Ritual impurity, invalidating the purification caused by previous wudu‘, is caused by certain acts. This is often called ‘breaking’ one’s wudu‘. For Sunnis the list is usually:

1. Emissions from the private parts (urine, excrement, anal gas, ²⁰ blood – including menstruation, semen etc.)

2. Deep sleep ²¹

3. Fainting, an epileptic fit or other loss of consciousness

4. Insanity, intoxication or other loss of intellect

5. Directly touching the private parts ²²

6. Vomiting ²³

7. Loss of blood (or pus) ²⁴

For Shi‘as, the list is the first five items above.

Which parts of the body are cleaned, and in which order, is considered very important.

Fiqh us-Sunnah, Fiqh 1.28A

Allah mentioned the obligations in a specific order. He also differentiated the legs from the hands – though both of them have to be washed – from the head, which only needs to be wiped. The polytheists of Arabia would not differentiate items unless there was some benefit in doing so. The way Allah structured the ablution made it easier for them to comprehend it. Al-Ma’idah : 6²⁵ explains what is obligatory and it falls under the generality of the Prophet’s statement, Begin with what Allah began with. The Prophet used to follow that sequence as one of ablution’s principles. There is no such report that the Prophet, upon whom be peace, ever departed from that sequence. Ablution is part of worship, and in matters of worship there is no room for anything except doing what has been commanded.²⁶

Although there are slight variations, the general Sunni rule on how a man should perform ablutions is as follows. After being sure his intention is right and saying b‘ismi’llah (in the name of God), he washes his right hand three times and then washes his left hand three times (including wrists). With water held in his cupped right hand, he rinses his mouth and spits the water out three times, and then sniffs water into his nose three times. Then he washes his face three times (from the top of the forehead to the chin and up to both ears). Then he washes his hands and forearms up to and including the elbows, first doing the right arm three times and then the left arm three times. Then the hair is wiped with wet hands, starting from the hairline at the front, going over the top of the head, to the back of the head. Then with a damp hand the ears are cleaned inside (with a damp forefinger) and outside and behind with a damp thumb. Some then wash the back of the neck with the back of the three fingers not used on the ears. This wiping (masah) of the head is more a symbolic than actual cleaning, and is performed only once. Finally, he washes (not wipes) his feet and ankles, doing the right three times and then the left three times, and using the little finger of his left hand to wash between the toes of both feet. In all this, the face, hands, head and feet to ankles are considered the four essentials, because they are mentioned in Q. 5:7.

A woman’s ablutions are the same except that, if she is in public, she can keep her hijab on and wipe over it instead of wiping her hair.²⁷ If in private and she has plaited hair, she need not unplait it but should ensure that she wets her scalp when washing the top of her head.

Shi‘a Muslims take a very similar view to Sunnis on how to perform ablutions, including the fact that the four obligatory steps are the face, hands, head and feet. However, Shi‘as distinguish washing the face and hands from wiping the head and feet, a distinction which they base on the Arabic of Q. 5:7. Like Sunnis they wipe (masah) the head, but unlike Sunnis they also wipe (masah) the feet with a damp hand rather than wash them with running water or by immersion.

For major impurity, Islamic law requires a ritual bathing of the whole body, which is called ghusl. This is required after:

1. emission of sexual fluid ( maniyy );

2. insertion of the penis into the vagina;

3. cessation of menstrual or postnatal bleeding, and after childbirth;

4. death (the body of the deceased must be washed);

5. conversion to Islam.

Ghusl is desirable (though not essential) on the following occasions:

1. before the Friday prayer;

2. before Id ²⁸ prayers;

3. after washing a dead body;

4. before entering ihram [the state of consecration] for haj or ‘ umrah ; ²⁹

5. before entering Mecca; and

6. while stopping at Arafat during haj . ³⁰

According to Sunni Islamic law, ghusl for men involves the following:

Fiqh us-Sunnah, Fiqh 1.58A

According to the practice of the Prophet, upon whom be peace, the correct manner of performing ghusl is: (1) wash both hands three times, (2) wash the penis, (3) make a complete ablution (like the one made for prayer – the Prophet used to delay washing his feet until the end of his ghusl if he was using a tub, and so on), (4) rub water through one’s hair three times, letting the water reach down to the roots of the hair, (5) pour water over the entire body, beginning with the right side, then the left, washing under the armpits, inside the ears, inside the navel, between the toes and whatever part of the body can be easily rubbed.³¹

There are extra instructions for ghusl for women:

Fiqh us-Sunnah, Fiqh 1.59

A woman performs ghusl just as a man does except that if she has plaited hair she does not have to undo it, provided that the water can reach the roots of her hair …

It is preferable for a woman performing ghusl to cleanse herself from menstruation or post-childbirth bleeding to take some cotton smeared with musk or perfume and wipe it over the traces of blood. This will remove the bad smell of the menstrual blood ‘Aishah reported, "’Asma bint Yazid asked the Messenger of Allah about ghusl after menstruation has ended. He said, She should use water mixed with the leaves of the lote-tree and cleanse herself. Then she should pour water over her head and rub it well till it reaches the roots of the hair, after which she should pour water over it. Afterwards, she should take a piece of cotton smeared with musk and cleanse herself with it. ’Asma asked, How should she cleanse herself with it? He said, Praise be to Allah, she should cleanse herself with it. ‘Aishah said in a subdued tone that she should apply it to the traces of blood. ’Asma then asked about bathing after sexual intercourse. He said, She should take water and cleanse herself or complete the ablution, pour water on her head and rub it till it reaches the roots of her hair, and then she should pour water over herself. ‘Aishah observed, How good are the women of the ‘helpers’ that shyness does not keep them from learning their religion. (Related by the group, except at-Tirmidhi.)³²

If water is not available for ghusl (or wudu‘) the ablutions can be performed with dry sand or soil, as the Fiqh us-Sunnah explains, referencing Q. 4:43,

Fiqh us-Sunnah, Fiqh 1.63A

This is proven by the Qur’an, the sunnah and ijma‘ (consensus). The Qur’an says, And if you are ill, or on a journey, or one of you comes from relieving himself, or you have touched women, and you do not find water, then go to high clean soil and rub your face and hands (therewith). Lo, Allah is Benign, Forgiving (an-Nisa’:43). From the sunnah we have the hadith related by Abu Umamah in which the Prophet, upon whom be peace, said, All of the earth has been made for me and my nation a pure place of prayer. Whenever a person from my nation wants to pray, he has something with which to purify himself, that is, the earth. (Related by Ahmad.) Finally, there is a consensus that tayammum forms a legitimate part of the shari‘ah, as it replaces ablution or ghusl under specific circumstances.³³

Dry ablutions are called tayammum.

The praying Muslim must face towards Mecca, a direction called the qiblah. Other prerequisites for prayer are:

1. knowledge that the time of prayer has begun;

2. freedom from major and minor ritual impurity;

3. purity of body, clothes and place of prayer; and

4. clothing one’s nakedness (‘ awrah ). ³⁴

From the mosque, the mu’adhdhin (muezzin) issues a summons to come for communal prayer by proclaiming the adhan, in words that Muslims believe date back to the first year after Muhammad migrated to Medina:

Allah is most great. Allah is most great.

Allah is most great. Allah is most great.

I testify that there is no god but Allah.

I testify that there is no god but Allah.

I testify that Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah.

I testify that Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah.

Come to prayer. Come to prayer.

Come to salvation. Come to salvation.

Allah is most great. Allah is most great.

There is no god but Allah.

The phrase ‘Prayer is better than sleep’ is added to the summons at the dawn adhan for fajr prayers, just before the final ‘There is no god but Allah’, and is said twice.³⁵

The adhan is said twice before each of the five daily prayer times – first to call people to come to prayer, and then again just before the prayer is about to begin, so they stand up to get in lines to start praying. In the second adhan there is an extra line just before the final ‘Allah is most great’ lines, namely, ‘Prayer is about to commence’.

The adhan quoted above is the usual Sunni one. Shi‘a Muslims add an extra line after ‘I testify that Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah’, namely, ‘Ali is the wali of Allah’ which is said twice.

Shi‘a Muslims add at every call to prayer ‘Come to the best work.’

The mu’adhdhin also proclaims the iqamah, summoning Muslims in the mosque to stand, ready for communal prayer to begin:

Allah is most great. Allah is most great.

I testify that there is no god but Allah.

I testify that Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah.

Come to prayer.

Come to salvation.

The time for prayer has come. The time for prayer has come.

Allah is most great. Allah is most great.

There is no god but Allah.

In private prayer, the individual can recite the adhan and iqamah themselves.

The prayer itself

Islamic law lays down the following essentials (arkan) for the five-times daily obligatory prayers (salat):

1. right intention ( niyyah ); ³⁶

2. the opening takbir ( takbirat al-ihram );

3. standing;

4. reciting the Fatihah ;

5. bowing ( ruku‘ );

6. standing erect after bowing;

7. two acts of prostration ( sujud ) and sitting (kneeling) between them;

8. final sitting (semi-kneeling) and recital of the tashahhud (the full extended version of the Muslim creed, longer than the shahadah ); and

9. the taslim (closing the prayer with ‘Peace be on you’). ³⁷

Niyyah

Prayer must be offered with the right intention (niyyah). Sometimes the intention is declared aloud, but it is essentially a state of heart.

Fiqh us-Sunnah, Fiqh 1.119

Says Allah, And We did not command them save to worship Allah, making the religion sincerely for Him (al-Bayinah:5).³⁸ The Prophet, upon whom be peace, said, "Every action is based upon intention. For everyone is what he intended…

In Ighatha al-Lufan, Ibn al-Qayyim states, The intention is the aim and purpose of something. It is a condition of the heart, and it does not come from the tongue. For that reason, the Prophet and his companions never spoke their intentions. What has been introduced into this matter during the actions of purity and the prayer comes from Satan and is a trap for those who are unsure about how to make it. You will find them repeating it over and over, but that is not part of the prayer at all.³⁹

Takbir

Ritual prayer consists of three elements: takbir, raka‘at and final prayer.

The takbir is the words Allahu Akbar (God is most great). Reciting these words marks the beginning of salat and, when spoken in that context, they are called takbirat al-ihram indicating that they denote the start of the consecrated time of prayer. According to Islamic law:

Fiqh us-Sunnah, Fiqh 1.120

…The takbir consists of saying Allahu akbar. Abu Hameed reported that when the Prophet stood for prayer, he would stand straight, raise his hands and say, "Allahu akbar."⁴⁰

While saying the takbir al-ihram, the worshipper stands and holds their hands up, on either side of their head, the palms turned forward so they face the qiblah, and thumbs touching the ear lobes.

Fiqh us-Sunnah, Fiqh 1.129A

Raising the Hands. This must be done at the beginning of each prayer’s takbir. Says Ibn al-Mundhir, All scholars agree that the Prophet raised his hands at the beginning of his prayer.

Commenting upon this report, Ibn Hajar says, The Prophet’s raising his hands at the beginning of his prayer has been narrated by fifty companions, including the ten who were given the tidings of Paradise. Al-Baihaqi related that al-Hakim said, "I do not know of any sunnah other than this one which is accepted by the four rightly guided khalifahs, the ten companions who were given the tidings of Paradise, and other companions scattered across many lands. … al-Baihaqi says, And it is as our teacher Abu ‘Abdullah has said."

Fiqh us-Sunnah, Fiqh 1.129B

Many narrations have been recorded concerning this subject. Many scholars have chosen the following forms: the hands are raised to the shoulders with the fingertips parallel to the button of the ears. Says an-Nawawi, "This is how ash-Shaf‘i combined the hadith (on this question), and the people found it to be good. It is preferred that one extends the fingers while raising the hands. Abu Hurairah said, When the Prophet, upon whom be peace, stood for prayer, he would raise his hands (with them being) open. (Related by the five", except for Ibn Majah.)⁴¹

Raka‘at

The first rak‘ah or unit of prayer (plural raka‘at) consists of the following parts after the opening takbir:

1. Qiyam

The worshipper stands erect, hands clasped (right over left) on the stomach below the navel, looking to the ground in self-abasement.⁴² Then he or she prays in Arabic:⁴³

Glory be to you, O Allah, and to you is the praise. Blessed is your name and most high is your honour. There is no god but you.

2. Ta‘awwudh

The worshipper seeks refuge with God from Satan by praying silently, ‘I seek refuge in Allah from Satan, the outcast’.⁴⁴

3. Tasmiya

The worshipper then recites aloud the b‘ismi’llah, saying: ‘In the name of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful.’

4. Qira’a

The worshipper recites Surah al-Fatihah, the first chapter of the Qur’an, without the b‘ismi’llah (i.e. omitting the first ayah) but adding ameen (amen) at the end.⁴⁵ This is followed by the recitation of another surah or part of a surah, which the worshipper can choose. For the third and fourth raka‘at of a prayer time, only the Surah al-Fatihah is recited, with no extra Qur’anic portion added after it.

If an imam⁴⁶ is present, he alone recites the Surah al-Fatihah and after the ameen at least three other Qur’anic portions are read.

Fiqh us-Sunnah, Fiqh 1.137

It is sunnah for the person to recite a section of the Qur’an after al-Fatihah during the two rak‘ah of the morning prayer and the Friday prayer, and the first two rak‘ah of the noon, afternoon, sunset and night prayers, and in all of the rak‘ah of supererogatory prayers.⁴⁷

5. Ruku‘

Ruku‘ is the procedure of bowing from the waist, with legs straight and hands on knees. While in this posture, many Muslims repeat three times ‘Glory be to my Lord, the Great One, praise is due to Him.’⁴⁸

Fiqh us-Sunnah, Fiqh 1.122A

…The posture of ruku‘ is established by bending over, putting one’s hands on one’s knees, and remaining in that position until he attains calmness. In another hadith the Prophet said, Then bow until you attain calmness while you are bowing. Abu Qatadah related that the Prophet, upon whom be peace, said, The worst people are the thieves who steal part of the prayer. He was asked how this was done, and he replied, He does not complete his bowings and prostrations, or he said, He does not straighten his back during his bowings and prostrations.⁴⁹

6. Wuquf

After ruku‘, the worshipper resumes an erect standing position (wuquf) and says, ‘God hears those who praise him. O God, our Lord, praise is due to you.’ In a congregational setting with an imam present, the imam alone says the first part and the congregation respond by saying the second part.⁵⁰

7. Sajdah (prostration, plural sajdat) or sujud

At this point the worshipper prostrates himself or herself, saying the takbir while moving from standing to prostration. During the act of prostration (sujud), seven parts of the body should touch the ground: the face (forehead and nose), palms of hands, knees and feet (all the toes). This is supported by several ahadith.

Fiqh us-Sunnah, Fiqh 1.124A

Bodily Parts That Touch the Ground During Prostration. These parts are: the face, hands, knees and feet. Al-‘Abbas ibn ‘Abdul Mutallib reported that he heard the Prophet say, When a slave (of Allah) prostrates, seven bodily parts prostrate with him: his face, his hands, his knees and his feet. (Related by the group, except for al-Bukhari.) Said Ibn ‘Abbas, The Prophet ordered us to prostrate on seven bodily parts and not to fold back the hair or clothing: the forehead, the hands, the knees and the feet. In another wording, the Prophet said, I have been ordered to prostrate on seven bodily parts: the forehead, and he pointed to his nose, the hands, the knees and the ends of the feet. (Related by al-Bukhari and Muslim.) In another narration, he said, I have been ordered to prostate on seven bodily parts and not to fold back the hair or clothing: the forehead, the nose, the hands, the knees and the feet. (Related by Muslim and an-Nasa’i.)

Abu Humaid reported that when the Prophet, upon whom be peace, prostrated, he placed his nose and forehead on the ground…⁵¹

The prostrated worshipper repeats three times (aloud or silently) ‘How perfect is my Lord, the Most High’,⁵² sits up into a kneeling position, and then repeats the prostration a second time.

8. Jalsa or julus (sitting)

The worshipper then sits, with their hands on their thighs, resting their weight on their left foot which is placed sideways on the ground while the right foot is upright so only its toes touch the ground. This is called the iftirash position.⁵³ He or she says Allahu Akbar while making the change of posture, and then, when in the iftirash position, prays for forgiveness, for example, ‘O God, forgive me and have mercy on me.’

Fiqh us-Sunnah, Fiqh 1.154

It is sunnah to sit spread out between the two prostrations (to put the left foot down and to sit upon it and to keep the right foot upright with the toes pointing toward the qiblah). ‘Aishah reported that the Prophet would lay out his left foot and keep his right foot upright. (Related by al-Bukhari and Muslim.) Ibn ‘Umar reported that it is from the sunnah to keep the right foot upright, with its toes pointing toward the qiblah, and to sit upon the left foot. (Related by an-Nasa’i.) Reported Nafa‘, "When Ibn ‘Umar prayed, he would face the qiblah, even his shoes." (Reported by al-Athram.) In the hadith of Abu Humaid, in which he described the prayer of the Prophet, he stated, Then he would lay down his left foot and sit upon it until all of his bones were in place, and then he would go to make the prostration (again). (Related by Ahmad, Abu Dawud, and at-Tirmidhi who classified it as sahih.)

It has also been related that ifa‘a (laying out both feet and sitting upon one’s heels) is a preferred act. Comments Abu ‘Ubaidah, "This is the statement of the people of hadith. Abu az-Zubair related that he heard Tawus say, We asked Ibn ‘Abbas about ifa‘a, and he said, ‘It is sunnah to do so.’ We said, ‘We think it to be too harsh for the man.’ He said, ‘It is a sunnah of your Prophet, upon whom be peace." (Related by Muslim.)

Ibn ‘Umar reported that when the Prophet rose from the first prostration, he would sit upon his toes. He used to say, "That is from the sunnah. Reported Tawus, I saw the ‘Abdullahs (‘Abdullah ibn ‘Abbas, ‘Abdullah ibn ‘Umar and ‘Abdullah ibn az-Zubair) sitting with their feet laid flat. The last two reports were related by al-Baihaqi. Talking of its authenticity, Ibn Hajr says, Its chain is sound."

Concerning iqa‘a – sitting with the buttocks on the ground and with the thighs straight on the ground – it is disliked by all scholars. Said Abu Hurairah, "The Prophet prohibited us from three things: pecking like a rooster (making the prostration very quickly), sitting like a dog (iqa‘a), and not turning one's whole head like a fox." This is related by Ahmad, al-Baihaqi, at-Tabarani and Abu Tala with a hassan chain.⁵⁴

Sajdah is then performed again bringing to a close one unit of rak‘ah.

The worshipper rises to a standing position again, saying Allahu Akbar, and immediately begins a second rak‘ah. It differs from the first rak‘ah in that at the second jalsa the worshipper says an extended version of the Islamic creed, the tashahhud (or at-tahiyyat) as follows:

Greetings belong to Allah. Pure actions belong to Allah. Good words and prayers belong to Allah. Peace on you, Prophet, and the mercy of Allah and his blessings. Peace be upon us and on the slaves of Allah who are salihun. I testify that there is no god except Allah. And I testify that Muhammad is His slave and His messenger.

Not only is the position of the feet of the seated worshipper important, so also is the position of their hands and fingers. Various ahadith give different instructions of the positioning of the hands and fingers while the tashahhud is recited.⁵⁵

The number of obligatory (fard) raka‘at is as follows:

• Fajr – 2 raka‘at

• Zuhr – 4 raka‘at

• Asr – 4 raka‘at

• Maghrib – 3 raka‘at

• Isha – 4 raka‘at

However, most Muslims will often add some optional (sunnah) extra raka‘at.

Final prayer

After saying the tashahhud, the worshipper may add, if he or she so wishes, the durud (a prayer asking God to bless Muhammad and his family): ‘O God, let your mercy come upon Muhammad and the family of Muhammad as you let it come upon Ibrahim and the family of Ibrahim. O God, bless Muhammad and the family of Muhammad as you blessed Ibrahim and the family of Ibrahim. Truly you are Praiseworthy and Glorious.’

After this the worshipper can make any personal supplications that he or she wants to, for example, another prayer for personal forgiveness, or prayer for the forgiveness of other Muslims, especially their own relatives (living or dead).

After this the prayer time is concluded with the taslim in which the worshipper twice recites the Islamic greeting As-salamu alaykum wa rahmatullah (Peace and mercy of God be upon you), first looking to the right and then looking to the left.

Length and frequency of prayer times

The length of ritual prayer depends upon its nature. A certain number of raka‘at are fard – that is, obligatory because they are commanded by God. Sunnah prayers are recommended by Muhammad. Nafl prayer refers to voluntary performance of two raka‘at or more. Witr⁵⁶ prayer refers to an odd number of units (either one, three, five or seven) said after the night prayer. Its purpose is to make an even number of rak‘ah odd. These divisions of prayer are entirely distinct from each other.

Witr prayer time

Witr is a night prayer, not compulsory like the five prayer times during the day, but highly recommended. Sunni Islamic law states:

Fiqh us-Sunnah, Fiqh 2.11B

The witr prayer is one that the Prophet sallallahu alehi wasallam practised and which he encouraged others to practise. As such, praying witr comes under as-sunnah almu’akkadah.

‘Ali says: "The witr prayer is not required like your obligatory prayers, but the Prophet would perform the witr prayer and say: ‘O you people [followers] of the Qur’an, perform the witr prayer, for Allah is one and He loves the witr.’"⁵⁷

Witr prayer can be performed any time between the completion of ‘isha prayers (the last of the five compulsory prayer times) and the fajr prayers at dawn, but it is considered better to do it later in the night, if the worshipper can manage that, but earlier in the night is better than not at all.

Fiqh us-Sunnah, Fiqh 2.12

All the scholars agree that the time for the witr prayer does not begin until after salatul ‘isha and it continues until the time of salatul fajr

Abu Tamim al-Jishani relates that ‘Amr ibn al-‘Aas was addressing the people during a Friday Khutbah⁵⁸ and he said: "Abu Basra related to me that the Prophet said: ‘Verily, Allah has added a prayer for you, and it is the witr prayer. Pray it between salatul ‘isha and salatul fajr.’ Abu Tamim said: Abu Dharr took me by my hand and we went in the mosque to Abu Basra and [Abu Dharr] said: ‘Did you hear what ‘Amr just said from the Messenger of Allah?’ He answered: ‘I heard it from the Messenger of Allah!’" This is related by Ahmad with a sahih chain.

Abu Mas‘ud al-Ansari relates: "The Prophet sallellahu alehi wasallam would make the witr prayer in the first part of the night or the middle of it or the latter part of it"… Ahmad has reported it with a sound chain.

…It is preferred to pray it early if one suspects that one will not wake during the latter portion of the night. It is, on the other hand, advisable to delay it if one believes that one will be able to wake up during the latter portion of the night.⁵⁹

Qunut prayer

Witr may include a supplicatory prayer called the qunut (also known in the Indian subcontinent as the muna’jat). Qunut literally means ‘submissive obedience’ or ‘standing’. A variety of supplicatory texts from the Qur’an and hadith can be used for this purpose, but one of the most commonly used is given in Al-Risala (the manual of Islamic law according to the Maliki school of Sunni Islam):

AL-RISALA (Maliki Manual)

10.2 QUNUT

O Allah we seek your aid and we seek your forgiveness. We believe in You and we depend on You, we bow to You and obey you. We desert him who is ungrateful to You. O Allah we worship You and pray to You and prostrate ourselves to You. We exert ourselves in Your worship without delay. We hope for your mercy and fear your grave punishment. Surely your punishment shall overtake the infidels.⁶⁰

The hands of the standing worshipper are raised in supplication during the qunut, and some Muslims then draw them down over their face to symbolize the transfer of blessing to their person.⁶¹

Fiqh us-Sunnah, Fiqh 2.15A

It is part of sunnah to supplicate with qunut in the witr prayer during the entire year. Ahmad, at-Tirmidhi, an-Nasa’i, Abu Dawud, Ibn Majah, and others record that al-Hassan ibn ‘Ali said: "The Messenger of Allah taught me the [following] words to say in the witr prayer:

‘O Allah, guide me among those whom you have guided. Grant me safety among those whom you have granted safety. Take me into your charge among those whom You have taken into Your charge. Bless me in what You have given me. Protect me from the evil that You have decreed, for You decree and nothing is decreed for You. And there is no humiliation for whom you take as a ward. Blessed and exalted are You, our Lord.’"⁶²

Jumu‘ah

Jumu‘ah is the name for the Friday midday congregational prayer time, replacing the zuhr prayer time of Saturday to Thursday. Friday (Jummah in Arabic, a word which also means ‘congregation’) is a special day for Muslims.

Fiqh us-Sunnah, Fiqh 2.125

Friday (Jumu‘ah) is the best day of the week.

Abu Hurairah reports that the Messenger of Allah sallallahu alehi wasallam said: The best day on which the sun rises is Friday. [On Friday] Adam was created, and on that day he entered paradise and on that day he was expelled from paradise. And the Hour will come to pass on Friday. This is related by Muslim, Abu Dawud, an-Nasa’i, and at-Tirmidhi who calls it sahih.

Abu Lubanah al-Badri relates that the Prophet said: "The most prominent of the days [lit. the leader of the days] is the day of Jumu‘ah and the most honoured in Allah’s sight, and it is more honoured in Allah’s sight than the day of breaking the fast or the day of sacrifice. It has five significant merits: Allah created Adam on this day; on this day Allah sent Adam down to the earth; on this day, Allah caused Adam to die; on this day, there is a time during which if anyone asks anything of Allah it will be granted to him unless he asks for something which is forbidden; and on this day, the Hour will be established. There are no angels close to Allah or sky or earth or wind or mountain or sea who are not worried concerning the day of Jumu‘ah." This is related by Ahmad and Ibn Majah. Al-Iraqi says its chain is hasan.⁶³

Ghusl ablutions must be performed before jumu‘ah.

Time, place and quorum for jumu‘ah

a)Time

There are various teachings on exactly when the jumu‘ah prayer time should begin, summarized by As-Sayyid Sabiq:

Fiqh us-Sunnah, Fiqh 2.132

The majority of the companions and successors were of the opinion that the time of al-Jumu‘ah is the same as that of the zuhr. Ahmad, al-Bukhari, Abu Dawud, at-Tirmidhi, and al-Baihaqi record from Anas that the Prophet sallallahu alehi wasallam would pray al-Jumu‘ah when the sun had passed its meridian. Ahmad and Muslim record that Salamah ibn al-Akua‘ said: "We would pray salatul Jumu‘ah with the Prophet when the sun had passed the meridian, and when we returned [from the salah], we would be following our shadow. Al-Bukhari says: The time of al-Jumu‘ah is when the sun passes its meridian. Similar narrations have been recorded from ‘Umar, ‘Ali, an-Nu‘man ibn Bashir, and ‘Umar ibn Hurith. Ash-Shaf‘i says: The Prophet sallallahu alehi wasallam, Abu Bakr, ‘Umar, ‘Uthman, and the imans after them all prayed the Jumu‘ah when the sun had passed its zenith."

The scholars of the Hanbali school and Ishaq are of the opinion that the time for al-Jumu‘ah is from the beginning of the time for salatul ‘id to the end of the time for the zuhr. They base their opinion on Ahmad, Muslim, and Nasa’i who record from Jabir: "The Prophet would pray al-Jumu‘ah and then we would take our camels to rest until the sun passed its zenith." This hadith clearly states that they prayed al-Jumu‘ah before the sun passed the meridian. They also cited as proof the hadith of ‘Abdullah ibn Saidan as-Salmi who said: "We prayed al-Jumu‘ah with Abu Bakr, and his khutbah and salah were before noon. Then we prayed with ‘Uthman and this khutbah and salah lasted until after the sun had passed the meridian, and no one scolded either for it. This is related by Ahmad, who cites it as a proof, and by ad-Daraqutni. Ahmad adds: and [something] similar to that has been related from ibn Mas‘ud, Jabir, Sa‘id, and Mu‘awiyyah. They all prayed before the sun passed the meridian and no one objected to what they did, and that was the consensus. The majority of the scholars, however, interpret the hadith of Jabir as implying that one should pray the salah early in its time, when the sun has passed the meridian, and not wait until the weather gets cool. The prayer and the resting of the camels was right after the sun passed the meridian. As to the report from ‘Abdullah ibn Saidan, these scholars consider it weak. Ibn Hajar writes about him: ‘He is one of the major tabi‘in [i.e., of the generation after the companions], and his integrity is not well-established. ‘Adi says: He is somewhat majhul, i.e. unknown as a trustworthy person. Bukhari observes: "His report is not to be trusted, especially when he is contradicted by people who are more credible (qawi) than him as Ibn abi Shaibah relates from Suwaid ibn Ghaflah that the later prayed with Abu Bakr and ‘Umar after the sun had passed the meridian and its chain is strong.⁶⁴

b)Place

Jumu‘ah can be performed anywhere.

Fiqh us-Sunnah, Fiqh 2.134

It is valid to perform the Jumu‘ah salah in any country, city, mosque, any building in a city, or in any space in a city, as it also is valid to have it performed in more than one place. ‘Umar wrote the following to the people of Bahrain: "Offer the Jumu‘ah salah wherever you may be." This is related by Ibn abi Shaibah. Ahmad holds its chain to be good. This includes both the cities and countryside.⁶⁵

c)Quorum

Jumu‘ah is a congregational event, but Islamic scholars vary in their opinions about the minimum number of Muslims required to make the prayer time valid. Some scholars consider that two is enough.

Fiqh us-Sunnah, Fiqh 2.133

There is no dispute among the scholars that a congregation is a necessary condition for the validity of al-Jumu‘ah. This is based on the hadith of Tariq ibn Shihab who reports that the Prophet said: "Al-Jumu‘ah is an obligation (wajib) upon every Muslim in the community." However, the scholars do differ on how many people are required for al-Jumu‘ah. There are fifteen different opinions on this question and they are mentioned by Ibn Hajar in Fath al-Bari. The strongest opinion is that salatul Jumu‘ah is valid if there are two or more people present since the Prophet is reported to have said: Two or more constitute a congregation.

Ash-Shaukani says: "The other prayers are considered to be made in congregation if there are two people present. The same applies to Jumu‘ah salah, unless there is a reason for it to be different. There is no evidence to show that [for the purpose of the congregation] its number should be larger than that for the other prayers. ‘Abdul Haqq says: ‘There is no confirmed hadith on the number of people needed for al-Jumu‘ah.’ Similarly, as-Sayuti holds: ‘There is no confirmed hadith which states a particular number [for the Jumu‘ah salah].’" This is also the opinion of at-Tabari, Dawud, an-Nakha‘i, and Ibn Hazm.⁶⁶

The order of events for jumu‘ah

The people gather in rows facing the mihrab.⁶⁷ First the khutbah (sermon) is delivered, during which the congregation sits on the ground to listen. The khatib⁶⁸ (preacher) stands to speak and divides his khutbah into two portions, sitting down between them.

A brief sermon is considered better than a long one.

Fiqh us-Sunnah, Fiqh 2.140

It is preferred to raise one’s voice, to keep the khutbah short, and to the point. ‘Ammar ibn Yasir reports that he heard the Messenger of Allah say: "Prolonging salah and shortening one’s khutbah is a sign of one’s understanding of the religion. So, prolong the prayer and shorten the khutbah." This is related by Ahmad and Muslim. Shortening the khutbah and prolonging one’s salah shows one’s understanding of religion, for such a person is able to comprehend and express much in a few words.

Jabir ibn Samurah says: "The Prophet’s salah was of a moderate length and so was his khutbah." This is related by the group, save al-Bukhari and Abu Dawud.

‘Abdullah ibn’ abi Aufa reports: "The salah of the Messenger of Allah was long and his khutbah was short." This is related by an-Nasa’i with a sahih chain.

Jabir informs: "When the Prophet delivered the khutbah, his eyes became red, his voice rose, and his anger increased as if giving a warning to the enemy." This is related by Muslim and Ibn Majah.⁶⁹

Islamic law gives directions on the general nature of the sermon and its content:

Fiqh us-Sunnah, Fiqh 2.140

An-Nawawi says: "It is preferred for the khutbah to be in an eloquent and proper Arabic, and it should be an organized speech that the people can understand. It should not be a speech, which is over the heads of the people, nor should it be shallow or contain foul language as that would defeat its purpose. Its words should be chosen carefully to make them attractive and meaningful."⁷⁰

Fiqh us-Sunnah, Fiqh 2.138

It is preferred that the Friday khutbah include praises of Allah, the Exalted, prayers upon the Prophet, admonitions, and Qur’anic recitations.

Abu Hurairah reports that the Prophet sallallahu alehi wassallam said: Every speech that does not begin with the praises of Allah is defective. This is related by Abu Dawud. Ahmad has something similar to it.

In another version, it is stated: "The Friday khutbah that does not contain the testimony [There is no God except Allah, and Muhammad is His Messenger] is like the defective hand. This is related by Ahmad, Abu Dawud, and at-Tirmidhi.

Ibn Mas‘ud reports that the Prophet would say in his opening testimony: All praise be to Allah, we seek His aid and we seek His forgiveness and we seek refuge in Allah from the evil of our souls. Whomever Allah guides, no one will be able to mislead him. Whoever He leaves astray will have no guidance for him. And I testify that there is no God except Allah and that Muhammad is His slave and His Messenger whom He sent with the truth and as a warner before the Hour. Whoever obeys Allah and His Messenger will be guided aright, and whoever disobeys them will only harm his own self and he will not harm Allah, the Exalted, at all.

Ibn Shihab was asked about the Prophet’s opening testimony during his khutbah on the day of Jumu‘ah, and he said something similar to that except that he stated: Whoever disobeys them has gone astray. Abu Dawud related both of these reports. Jabir ibn Samurah says: "The Messenger of Allah would deliver his khutbah standing, would sit in between the two khutbahs, would recite some verses, and would remind the people [about Allah]." This is related by the group, save al-Bukhari and at-Tirmidhi…

In ar-Raudah an-Nadiyah, it is stated: "Thus the required khutbah, in terms of Islamic law, should be modelled after the Prophet’s khutbah exhorting people to do good and warning them against dire consequences of the evil. This is the spirit of the address which the Islamic law has instituted. As to the other contents of the khutbah, like praising Allah, saying prayers upon His Messengers or reciting a portion of the Qur’an, none of these is its main purpose, which is to admonish people … It has been customary among the Muslims [in the light of the sunnah] that if one wanted to make some sort of proclamation, he would begin with praises of Allah and prayers upon His Prophet, or something of that nature. Still, that is not the purpose of the khutbah: indeed, the purpose is that which is said after praises of Allah and prayers for the prophet. If a person delivers a khutbah and confines it to only praising Allah and saying prayers upon the Prophet, his khutbah would hardly be acceptable. Any person with common sense could understand that.

It is the admonitary aspect of the Friday khutbah which the ahadith emphasise, and if a khatib makes an admonition, he fulfils the purpose of shari‘ah; if he precedes his khutbah with praises of Allah and prayers upon the Prophet and during his admonitions he uses Qur’anic verses, then he does it in a complete and satisfactory manner."⁷¹

After the khutbah comes the time of prayer, usually led by a prayer leader – this is the main function of a mosque’s imam – but the role can be performed by any knowledgeable Muslim man at a gathering.

Fiqh us-Sunnah, Fiqh 2.56

The one who should be imam is the one most versed in the Qur’an. If two or more are equal in this, then it is the one who has the most knowledge of the sunnah. If they are equal in that, then it is the one who performed the migration first. If they are equal in that, then it should be the eldest.

Abu Sa‘id narrates that the Prophet said: If you are three in number, then one of you should be the imam. And the one who has the most right to it is the one who is the most versed in the Qur’an. This is related by Ahmad, Muslim, and an-Nasa’i. The meaning of most versed in the Qur’an is the one who has more of the Qur’an memorized. This interpretation is based on the hadith from Amr ibn Salamah which says: Your imam should be the one who is most versed in the Qur’an.

Ibn Mas‘ud reports that the Prophet sallallahu alehi wasallam said: