A History of the Celtic Peoples: The Pain of Celtic Glory

By John Heinmiller

In the History of the Celtic Peoples, author John D. Heinmiller examines history from a unique perspective. In focusing on the Celtic peoples, the peoples from the Britannic Isles to the Iberian Peninsula and the northern part of the modern nation of Italy, Heinmiller argues that it is the Celts who were and are the real dynamic force of Europe from the 15th Century onward. Though the position is controversial, Heinmiller presents the evidence in this history as clearly as he can.

In the third, the Pain of Celtic Glory, Heinmiller discusses the history of the Celts from the Renaissance onward to the period just before the great revolutions of history. The far flung empires of the Celts are discussed as well as the glory the various Celtic states achieved, along with the price of that glory.

In this history, the author tries to use the actual names of places, not their anglicized names. Thus, Rome becomes Roma, Italy becomes Italia, Normandy becomes Normandie, etc. Even the names of people and kings are adjusted, the English Henry is the French Henri and the Spanish Henrique. The French Philip becomes Philippe while if he is Spanish he is known as Filipe. This, however, is not taken all the way; for example most readers would not realize that Bourgogne is the true name of Burgundy after all. Still, the author wants the reader to be aware of the actual names.

• Language: English
• Publisher: John Heinmiller
• Release date: Feb 11, 2021
• ISBN: 9781005171315

John Heinmiller

John D. Heinmiller is a student of truth, in all of its various ways. He has long been interested in such questions as why and how we know what we know. Of course, he started looking into itThen, true to form, he started to write about it. Of course, he did not limit himself to just that field of interest.A lifelong Californian who was born in Los Angeles, Mr. Heinmiller currently lives by himself in San Francisco where he tries to continue his research and his writing.

Book preview

HISTORY OF THE CELTIC PEOPLES

In four volumes.

Volume 3

The Pain of Celtic Glory

By John D. Heinmiller

Smashwords Edition

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Copyright 2021 by John D. Heinmiller. All rights reserved.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Preface

Part Nine – The Rise of Hapsburg

High Renaissance

Iberian Imperialism

French Ambitions

For the Love of Conquest

Six Wives

The Ambition of Hapsburg

Part Ten – Over the Worship of God

Catholic vs. Protestant

Lepanto

The Fury of St. Bartholomew

The Great Armada

The End of Valois

The End of the French Wars of Religion

Problems of Peace

Power Politics

Part Eleven – The Divine Right

The Thirty Years War

Britannic Crisis

The English Civil War

The Price of Hubris and Religion

The Rise of the Sun King

France Against Everyone

The End of the Great Monarch

PREFACE

Our journey with the Celtic peoples has arrived at the beginning of what is known as the High Renaissance. The world is vastly different from when the Celts controlled vast swaths of land all on their own.

For the most part, gone are the old Celtic traditions and lores. The traditions and lore are now almost all Germanic, with Christianity thrown into it. Even in Scotland and Ireland, the lands where the most Celtic principles dominated, many of the traditions and lore has disappeared, replaced by a Roman-Christian type tradition and lore.

Yet as we have seen, Celtic principles are reawakening. It is true that all of the precedents were awakening on the Isle, but they were awakening. We have seen the principle of legal precedent reawaken in English Britannia. We have also seen the King forced to be beholden to the law, much as the Ri of the past have been, in Britain. But these great Celtic principles, however, were not given a Celtic expression but rather a Germanic one. The Germanic great state principle found its fullest expression in the Celtic lands.

But so did the Germanic duxal tradition. Fused with the ancient Roman tradition of patriarchy, the dux would become the great nobles of the various nations, whether they were known as ducs, ducas, duques or dukes. This great tradition displayed an ugly side that constantly tore apart the great states that were developing, just as the patriarchy displayed its ugly side in Rome just before Caesar took over. Fortunately, their time was limited. When we start this new volume, they still exist, along with lesser nobility in various nations, but their time as a real power has passed.

A new world has arisen, a world to a large degree dominated by Celtic-Germanic traditions. The kingdoms of England, France and Portugal are developed, the kingdom of España is developing. Already we can see and recognize the western map of modern day Europe, though there are differences, especially in France. And in Flanders we can see the beginnings of modern day Netherlands and Belgium.

Much struggle and agony had occurred to shape these nations. The dominant struggle was that between England and France, the struggle shaped to a large degree by the Curse of William the Conqueror. The brave, Norman duc who was a vassal of the Frankish king had conquered England then, like the good noble he was, turned and strove to increase his holdings in Francia, even to the point of conquering it all. It set England and France on a collision course for centuries. Even today there is a latent hostility that is a remnant of that dark time, though it is being overcome and superseded by a natural friendship between the two states. By the time this volume begins to open, the hostility is still fresh, still very real, and still painful for both sides.

But the struggle between England and France, while it dominated the story, was not the only one. England has also been shaped by struggle with the people on the north of Britannia and with the people of the isle of Hesperia. Both nations had a minor, though key, interference in events in Iberia which was dominated first by the Visigothic invasion then later by the Saracen conquest and the Reconquista. And in a bit of irony, Italia owed its freedom in part to English interference with France, it stopped the French from regaining their ancient empire of Charlemagne.

But even though they fought one another, the various states had a great influence on one another. Great legislatures are already forming, the Cortes in España, the États Généraux in France, all developing thanks to the great experiment of Parliament in England. Trade from the East has flowed through Italian ports to the rest of Europe, creating a need of eastern luxuries and awareness of foreign influences. And exploration has been finely honed by the Portuguese, though it must be pointed out that they were in some ways following in the footsteps of the Nordics.

We have now come to the period where the Celtic peoples, with their Germanic masters, are starting to play a dominant role in world affairs. Far flung empires will be built. Ties throughout the world will be forged. Much evil will occur during this time, great crimes will be committed and many foreign peoples will have great reason to hate the Celtic peoples, but once it is over there will be no land mass that will be unknown, no people who remain truly isolated, save by pure hatred alone.

It will be an era of exploration, an era of both true exploration and an era of reexploration, for though there will be some voyages of genuine exploration, going where no human had gone before, many will simply be voyages that are of discovery only for Europeans. Great feats will be attempted, some actually successful and though others will fail the failures the results will be discoveries of things unknown to the Europeans, as well as discoveries unknown to those discovered by the Europeans. The true nature, size and reality of the entire world is about to be revealed … to the entire world.

Knowledge is also starting to grow. It is true that the Celtic peoples are not completely responsible for what happened, but all seem to have their time when they make their great contributions to the understanding. The Greeks, Egyptians and Mesopotamians have already advanced knowledge in their time, the Arabs had taken what the ancients had learned and had developed it. Now it was Europe’s time and though much would be advanced by Germanics, the Celts will also play their part, a major one, in the upcoming development of knowledge. To a large degree it all started in the major Celtic land we have written the least about. It was the people of the Po River Valley and the northern part of the Mediterranean Sea who took all of the knowledge of the past, cooked it, fermented it, and prepared it. It was already starting to emerge in a blaze of glory little equaled in the history of the world.

THE RISE OF HAPSBURG

1

HIGH RENAISSANCE

As the 15th Century approached its conclusion, a bright light started to shine in northern Italia. The remaining Maritime Republics, along with the states of Florence and Tuscany, were becoming so wealthy that they began to display their wealth in ways far beyond what had been done since the Roman Imperium. The revolution in art, architecture and learning that had developed was transforming the Italian states into the showpiece of Europe.

Of old the architecture of Europe was cold and dismal, focusing on function with no considerations for space or human habitat. Buildings of the various artisans were built as bare homes with the tools of the trade included. Castles and fortresses, serving the purpose of military control, were strictly utilitarian, only sometimes having various tapestries to relieve the visual monotony these structures imposed. Homes were just the four walls and a roof with a place to lay one’s head and a hearth to cook in. No thought, no intention was given to human comfort or human happiness.

Around the eleventh century the revival had begun. The primary artistic expression of the time was known as Gothic. Though by today’s standards it is dark and dreary, by the standards of the medieval period it was bright. It was primarily found in the great cathedrals of the time where the high vaulted ceilings allowed for immense stained glass windows; when the light hit the windows, the result, even by today’s standards, was breathtaking. But it was not just the stained glass that Gothic was renowned for. Statuary received a certain measure of human realism, though the figures were still stiff and perspective was lacking. Paintings had also grown beyond the iconographic art of the past, though again perspective was lacking. Books, jewelry, armor, all achieved a level of artistic sophistication.

But in the region now known as Northern Italia, something breathtaking was occurring. Greek thought had returned to northern Italia. Greek thought was not God oriented or otherworldly; the Greek concept of excellence, Arete was human excellence. It allowed people to start to focus on the human instead of the divine. It was refreshing.

The re-emergence of Greek thought, brought to Italia by Greeks fleeing the destruction of the Byzantine Empire, played a large role in the development of architecture in the various city states. Greek archeologic methods were fused with Gothic art and the heraldic symbolism of the late medieval period to produce buildings that, while tall, were suddenly opened up for enjoyment and beauty. Pure, sterile functionality was suddenly bejeweled with artistic, architectural touches, statuary and balustrades that contributed to human enjoyment. Some of the buildings were swept by color, sometimes utilizing marble to alleviate the sameness of the buildings. And even granite buildings were decorated with reliefs throughout, though instead of Greek stories of people there were heraldic symbols in ornate patterns.

The advances in art and architecture did not remain in the north of Italia for long. It spread outward, northward into Germany, westward in France and Hispania, and southward towards the Vatican. The papacy was very interested in the new approaches. St. Peter’s Basilica was one of the oldest churches in Christendom, nobody wanted to destroy it, but the old basilica had fallen into disrepair and desperately needed to be replaced. The call for a new basilica brought architects from everywhere, including Michelangelo and Rafael. Pope Julius was enthralled with everything Michelangelo and wanted him to not only design the basilica but to paint the ceiling and the alter walls of the Sistine Chapel, one of the oldest churches still standing. Julius also wanted Michelangelo to design his elaborate tomb; it would only be completed in a much reduced form after Julius died.

The basilica brought back an ancient symbol of power. It was the dome, the ancient architectural symbol of the authority and power of Rome. Domes had all but disappeared in Western Europe as towering castles and the spires of cathedrals had become the symbols of the different types of power, but the revival of the ancient Roman dome allowed both Ecclesiastical and Secular authorities to utilize this symbol of power and authority. The Dome of the Basilica was the first, of this revived symbol of power.

Of course, domes were not the only expression of power. St. Peter’s Square was designed using concepts of the Greeks but in such a way that the Church would appreciate. Two huge Tuscan style colonnades were constructed in such a way as to, as Gian Lorenzo Bernini the architect who designed them would claim, embrace visitors in the maternal arms of the Mother Church. One can bet the pope loved the idea.

Greek humanism also infected the artwork. The Greek-like focus on realism helped to develop painting and statuary from the rigid, gothic style to artwork where the subject painted seem ready to step out from the canvas or stone and talk to you, bless you or fight you.

Of course, one could not focus entirely on the human, the power of the Church was everywhere and its otherworldly focus was immense. Almost everything that was not expressed in a heraldic context had to be expressed in a religious context. A classic was the famous Palazzo San Giorgio de Genova which depicted St. George fighting the dragon. Other classics are Michelangelo’s two statues Moses and David. But already the painters were working their way away from the purely religious sphere, the art was now starting to include portraiture, people who had paintings of themselves. Other secular situations often were painted, like a wedding scene, though because of the power of the Church religious iconography was blended with the secular situation. But sometimes a painter could get away with painting purely secular situations even with the blessing of the Church; Raphael painted the famous School of Athens, inside the Apostolic Palace in the Vatican; he even put in the great Islamic philosopher Averroes in the painting.

The time was a time of experimentation and daring, though all due respect had to be given to the sensibilities of the Catholic Church. For the first time in millennia, the Greek gods were finding their way into paintings. Athena and Apollo even made it into the Vatican; they can be seen on either side of the famous School of Athens. To appease the fierce Catholic Church the painters proclaimed the ancient gods to be angels. The church was not deceived, they would have known what the ancient Greek gods were. That said, the painters depicted God as a Greek style god and Jesus as a Greek style hero. As the painters never claimed to worship the Greek gods, the Church hierarchy turned a blind eye to what was happening.

Greek thought was doing more, however, then just adapting architecture and painting. Scholars and philosophers were studying the ancient texts, most notably those of Aristotle and Plato. Already there were several Academies and Lyceums in northern Italia, all modeled after the famous Academy of Plato and the Lyceum of Aristotle. But it wasn’t just the teachings of those two ancient Greek thinkers that was examined, the works of other ancient thinkers like Epicurus and Democritus were also examined in minute details. The work of Thomas Aquinas, which had given the effective permission of the Church to read the works of the ancient thinkers, helped to prevent any harsh backlash. Indeed, thanks to Aquinas, many of the more liberal members among the Church were seriously looking into the developing sciences and striving to learn things about the natural world. The belief then was that such knowledge would only serve to increase what we know of the glory of God; the Church still holds that viewpoint.

Not all who strove to advance knowledge belonged to the various revived schools. Some people trained themselves and branched out from the various schools. Leonardo da Vinci was famous even then for the advances he made, the drawing he executed and the studies he performed, all of which seemed to defy the limits of what we can perceive. Many a person claim that Leonardo was able to see detail that few others could see. But in truth, he saw the same things that others saw. But instead of simply sitting back and letting others explain things to him, he trained himself to fully observe what he perceived, to actually see all that was there. As a result, many who never train themselves, stand enthralled with his genius and his ability. But then Leonardo was a rarity, a person who pushed himself to the limits of his abilities, who trained himself to do things that others considered to be impossible, even though if they would push themselves as Leonardo did, they too would be able to observe with the same skill he did.

Northern Italia was more than just the home of the revival of Greek thought. It was also a seething cauldron of new ideas and radical thinking. People who were studying Aristotle and Plato were using their methods, combined with the empirical methodology developed by the Scholastics, to come up with conclusions that were different from what the old masters had determined. Copernicus, for instance, studied for a number of years in Padua, there was a Lyceum there that almost certainly influenced him in his studies. But ancient knowledge was not limited to just the knowledge of the ancient Greek thinkers. Secret societies abounded everywhere, each of them professing to teach some of the ancient secrets of the past. Who knows, maybe some did.

But the same Greek thought that was spurring the revival of the understanding was also asking some very difficult questions, questions that the Most Holy, Catholic and Apostolic Church was quite unwilling to answer. The Church had grown lazy and lax in the enforcement of Church law, in the spreading of Christian thought. They were the shepherds of the flock, but instead of being the wise shepherd who guarded the flock for spiritual gain, they had become the greedy and covetous shepherd who tended the flock for financial gain. Riches and wealth had become the true master of many ecclesiasticals. Indulgences, special remissions of sin, were sold by the priesthood for financial gain that went right to the bishoprics and the papacy. Wealth and power could now simply buy their way to Heaven and if the poor could not make it that was too bad to a church that now worshipped Mammon more than Jehovah.

There were also new concepts that were taught by the Church, concepts like Purgatory, that were not found in the Bible. Though the Church taught that Purgatory was a blessing of God (due to the assertion that all people would be able to leave Purgatory for Heaven), the actions of the Church did not support what they were preaching.

The long arm of Churchly Law, the Inquisition, was asleep for the moment, it had been allowed to disband once the Albigensian Heresy was deemed to be controlled, but the idea merely slept. Popes were quite ready to invoke it once again, to spring it into being should it ever be needed. And the need for it was greater than popes believed for the very crimes of the Church was prompting many to think rebellious thoughts. Already many churchmen were studying the Bible with thoughts of reforming the institution. Martin Luther, up in what was left of the Holy Roman Empire, wrote his 95 Thesis as a challenge not to the authority of the Church but to certain practices which he thought were vile and needed reform. But some of his thesis went farther and attacked doctrine that had been part of the church since the beginning, to this the Papacy would not relent. One of the most important, the one that attacked the Church and the Papacy, the one that the Pope could not relent on, was Luther’s conviction that it was the Bible and faith alone, not the intercession of the Church or the teachings of the papacy, which granted salvation. Luther and the Pope were on a collision course and when the explosion resulted, much of Germany and the Nordic lands would be ripped out of Catholic control. The Reformation was about to begin. To this, the Church would initially respond by reawakening and this time institutionalizing the Inquisition. But for once the Inquisition would not be enough to stem the tide.

The Church would suffer the consequences of the developing advances but mankind as a whole benefited from them. Of course, the advances were not just in the realm of art, architecture, knowledge and faith. The Italians were developing a new weapon, a weapon that were already bringing down the age of chivalry and the mounted chevalier. The cannon was being modified to become the fearsome personal weapon it eventually became. While the French were developing cannons into the powerful wall busting devices, the Italians were developing personalized cannons that could be carried by individuals. These were not exported, they were still too large and clumsy, but they did give people who did not know how to use the crossbow, the sword or the pike the means to stand and fight.

Already the firepower of these personalized cannons was having a consequence unlooked for. Because they could pierce the thickest armor, the use of armor was beginning to recede. The French and Spanish commoner now had a weapon that could kill the noble, the chevalier and the caballero at a distance just like the English longbow could kill the noble and knight. And unlike the longbow, the secret of the manufacture which was jealously guarded by the Islanders, it was quite obvious how to make a personal cannon. Already the weapon was evolving that would become the arquebus, the musket, the flintlock and the repeating rifle.

It was well that the personal cannon was being developed for the Italian states were already being targeted by a new power. France, free from the fury of the wars with England, was already casting covetous eyes on their old possessions in Italia. Remembering the days of Charlemagne, French kings were preparing to march into Italia to regain dominance over that critical region. But it was not just France that marched. The combined kingdoms of Castile and Aragón also marched there, the two nations were on a collision course that would grow in fury. The personalized cannon would continue to be used.

The Italian States were in the golden age of their existence, their contributions were monumental and glorious to a degree never seen before or since. Unfortunately, as any student of history would know, gold is the color of autumn, of the sunset. The glory that was the great Maritime Republics of Italia was already coming to a close, the very opportunities and advantages that had long propelled them were being undermined. The trade that had made Genova, Pisa and Venezia so rich had caused other nations to look upon them with covetous eyes. Besides, piracy in the Mediterranean Sea was rampant, with Christian preying on Muslim and Muslim preying on Christian, both sides deploring the piracy of the other while minimizing, ignoring or explaining away the piracy of their own side.

For these reasons the Atlantic states were looking for routes to the Indies and Cathay that did not depend on the Mediterranean. It was Portugal that was reaped the benefits first, though soon others would be joining them in this trade to the east. The increase of the Atlantic powers would leave the great republics of northern Italia to wither. It would be the banking of the great inland families, not the trade of the maritime republics, which would give Italia what vibrancy it had for several centuries; Genova, Venezia and Ancona would make way for Florence and Sienna. But the power of banking is no substitute for the power of trade and even the glory of such families as the Medici, the Gondi, the Altoviti, the Salviati, the Chigi and the Strozzi was doomed to eventually fade.

The Medici are actually a special case, not only in the banking world but in Italian and even European history. Though they never became kings they were able to advance beyond being mere bankers of Florence and became, for all intents and purposes, the main figures in Italia itself. They succeeded in becoming the Granducato’s di Toscana with some even becoming pope’s of the Church. As the power of the Maritime Republics continued to collapse and the trade with the east shifted from the Republics to the Atlantic seaboard, the fortunes of the Medici continued to soar, with some actually marrying into the French throne. The fortune built by Cosimo de' Medici, the founder of the Medici line and bank, built up to astounding heights as they somehow became embedded in the nation even after they lost their banking powers.

It was Lorenzo de Medici who built up the power of the family even as he oversaw the contraction of the Medici bank. Though the republic was officially governed by the various merchant and trades guilds, it was in reality ruled by various noble families; Medici was the last of the noble families to come into the picture. Though Lorenzo was never the titular head of the Repubblica di Florence, he was for all intents and purposes the lord of the city, ruling through surrogates and strategic marriages like the prior nobles had. He was able to maintain his rule in the city by resolving a war with Napoli, the resulting peace allowed him to increase his power at the expense of the other powerful families, though the price he paid was to be a prisoner for a few months. His family lost control of Florence after he died and it seemed that the Medici lineage was over. But his second son succeeded in becoming pope, the first of several Medici popes and the power of the family was assured. An alliance with the Spanish helped the family to depose the Repubblica di Florence and the Medici were restored as rulers of the city. It was not long until a Medici was made Ducato di Florence, ending the Republic and placing the Medici solidly on top of the ducal throne of the city. Through marriages, papal power and other ties, the Medici were the dominant family of Italia for over a century. But their story also shows their dependency on the other powers for their success.

No talk about northern Italia during this time would be complete without a discussion of the Repubblica di Venezia, the great maritime republic that managed to control so much of the Adriatic Seaboard. Because the Venetians did not play that much of a role in the affairs of España and France, I think we can perform a full, in depth discussion of that city state for it had played a large role in the disaster which was occurring in the Mediterranean and the Balkan Peninsula. For disaster it was to both the Venetians and the various Christians, though to the Muslims, especially those of Anatolia, it was a blessing and an opportunity.

The Republic was governed by The Doge, an elected position that was given a princely rank equivalent to that of a ducca when dealing with foreign potentiates. The nobility of Venezia had made sure that no doge could pass along their position to their successor, in fact the family of the doge could be fined if they had done a poor job. And, to keep the Doge lean and mean, the pay of the position was far less than what he would have earned in other states. In other words, he was expected to earn his own fortune through the life’s blood that was the Repubblica di Venezia.

The life’s blood of that Maritime Republic was trade. It was trade that brought the wealth to Venezia, it was trade that had grown the island city into the powerful state it had become. Trade was the be-all and end-all for each of the noble families of Venezia and The Doge was expected to participate in trade as well. In fact, it was the only non-government income he could obtain for the nobles, very wisely, forbade The Doge from receiving any foreign gifts or bribes.

It was this focus on trade that brought about the disaster. During the 4th Crusade the Doge of the time, the aged and blind Dandolo had agreed to let the crusaders pay a sum to them for transportation. But the crusaders could not pay the total sum, far less money than expected was available. So the Doge struck a shabby bargain with the Crusaders. The city of Zara, a one-time Venetian colony, was besieged and captured, much to the displeasure of the Papacy. In essence, the crusade had become an extension of the policy of the Doge of Venezia.

But the real policy of the Doge was expressed when he turned the crusaders against the very city they were sworn to protect. The city of Constantinople, the capital of the Byzantine Empire, Rome continued, stood as a bulwark against the Muslims. Their position protected the Balkan Peninsula from Islamic incursions. But its position interfered with Venetian trade. This did not sit well with the nobility of Venezia which almost certainly wanted an opportunity to get rid of a rival in trade. Yes, the two did trade with each other occasionally, but for the most part the two were rivals for goods that flowed into the Balkan Peninsula. Plus, Dandolo had reason to hate the Byzantium people; he had been around when the Byzantine Empire had imprisoned thousands of Venetian citizens. When the members of the 4th Crusade showed up, it was easy for Dadolo to turn their attention from the Holy Land to Byzantium.

The sack of Constantinople all but destroyed the powerful state that was guarding the passes to Europe. The Venetian nobility was very happy, they gained many isles from the downfall of the Imperium. The crusaders also were happy, they created a new empire, the Latin Empire, which all but replaced the old Imperium. And the Seljuk Turks were happy, they did not have the power of the Imperium to fight any more but rather some weaker forces that were broken and divided. Of course, the Byzantines were not happy but they endured, creating what was called the Empire of Nicaea. And the Pope was not happy, he excommunicated every crusader. But a number of Balkan states were very happy, they broke off and began fighting amongst themselves and with the Latin Empire. Confusion reigned where there was once unity.

The lands of Byzantium never recovered their strength and soon, as the Seljuk Turks collapsed from internal weaknesses a new Turkish power, the Ottoman’s, emerged. The Ottoman’s were a unified, dynamic and powerful force, indeed they may have still crushed the Byzantines anyway, but the 4th Crusade had crippled the power of the Imperium without replacing it with anything worthwhile. It must be noted that the Latin Empire collapsed within a century and the Byzantine Empire, much smaller, struggled to continue on for a number of years. Still, the new Turkish power took their time. They quickly absorbed the remainder of the Seljuk Turks before they turned their attention to the broken Byzantine Empire. It did not take them long before they had complete control of the Anatolian Peninsula. Then, in a display of their power, they crossed the Dardanelles and began to march up the Balkan Peninsula, capturing Byzantine and other lands on the way with great ease. Various revolts against the Byzantines were used by the Ottomans to subjugate the revolting lands and further weaken the Imperium. Some tales and stories, like that of Vlad the Impailer, come down to us from that time, but they was more in the realm of a determined resistance that only succeeded in slowing down the forces that were moving, as well as displaying the divided nature of the states that constantly fought one another, making it easier for the Turks to win. When the Turks finally turned their attention to what was left of the old Imperium they had the situation well in hand indeed.

In the last days of Byzantium, Genoese served the last Byzantine Emperor, but no Venetians, the Repubblica de Venezia was still opposed to the Imperium. It would have been better for them if they had tried to support the tottering Imperium for the conquest of the city of Constantinople. Far better if they had never stabbed the old Imperium in the back like they did. They had gained immensely from improved trade and power. Now the price came home to roost. It was deadly.

All that the Venetians had gained from the Byzantines the Ottomans subjugated with indifferent ease. Island by island, the island empire of the Republic was captured by Ottoman armies that were transported by Ottoman navies and finally subjugated by Ottoman administrators. The Venetians managed to retain the isle of Crete for a while but quickly lost all else as the Ottomans pushed hard through the Balkans, all the way to the border of modern-day Poland and, except for some bad luck, might have gone further. When the Turks were knocking on the door of Venezia proper, the Doge was finally forced to abandon Crete to focus on the defense of the home city. Thus, all of central Europe paid for the betrayal of Byzantium by Venezia. The people of Venezia were weak and if the Turks had focused on that city they might have crossed over to the Isle and conquered it. But the armies of the Turks focused on inland targets, this alone protected the city of Venezia.

With such power, the Turks would spread the other way, quickly subjugating Mesopotamia, the lands of Canaan and Egypt, even spreading rapidly through Northern Africa. Within a number of years they were the largest existing empire in the world and there seemed to be nothing to stop them from growing larger. There were few empires that were ever larger. The only threat from the east to them was the Iranian forces of ancient Persia. With the collection of naval assets from all the Islamic states of the Mediterranean, they became the dominant naval power in the sea. Their power was immense, their pride and skill great.

Venezia would survive as an independent state for several more centuries, the Doge would continue to be elected and each would strive to do what he could. But their glory days, the days of their power and real prosperity, were falling behind them. There was nothing they could do to stem the tide. They had stabbed themselves in the foot by targeting Constantinople. It was coming home to roost.

Northern Italia was playing its part, and it was a critical one, leading Europe out of the darkness of the Middle Ages and into both the Enlightenment and the Modern Age. But already its influence was waning, its power broken by foreign invasions and the loss of revenue from the decline in trade. It was destined to become the battlefield of foreign powers and subject to the whim of others.

2

IBERIAN IMPERIALISM

As the dynamism of Italia died in the glory of the Renaissance, the dynamism of the Iberian Peninsula awoke. Like Italia, Iberia was divided. But unlike Italia, Iberia’s strength was growing. Unlike the Italian duchies, three of the four kingdoms of Iberia, Portugal, Castile and Aragón dreamed of unifying the Iberian Peninsula under one monarch.

The westernmost kingdom, Portugal, was guided by the sure hand of João. For the most part he had governed the nation fairly well. Up to this point only one real black spot was on his character, he had tried to take the kingdom of Castile from his wife’s aunt Isabel. True, it was the expected thing in that greedy and selfish day and João can be forgiven for doing what almost all kings strove to do, playing the game of kings and trying to conquer the neighboring kingdom. But though it was understandable, it was still the wrong thing to do for the people suffered as a result.

Two of the other kingdoms were effectively unified, though they still had different administrators. The kingdoms of Castile and Aragón were ruled by Isabel and Fernando respectively. The two were married and to forestall any threats to her rule, Isabel had named Fernando co-ruler of Castile. The two also made sure that any decision that affected one affected both. Their dream was the united kingdom of Hispania, or España. But the unification was not quite there yet. Still, they had done what should have been done several centuries earlier, the Reconquista was finally over, the struggle to regain the peninsula for the Natives and the Visigothic peoples was complete. If the Palayo managed to look down from some heavenly sphere, he could sit back in satisfaction over the fact that his descendants had finally completed the task he started more than seven hundred years earlier.

The fourth kingdom, the tiny kingdom of Navarra was too weak to make any play for control of the peninsula. That it still existed was nothing less than remarkable. But the fate of the part of the tiny kingdom south of the Pyrenees was to be incorporated into Castile. The rest of the tiny kingdom was to be tied to France. For this reason it is better known by its French name, Navarre.

João, Fernando and Isabel were all quite interested in finding a way to take the monopolies in the silk and spice trade away from the Italians. Part of the rational was simple self-interest which could easily be attributed as greed. All three nations desired the wealth of the Italian city states for themselves. Still, they might have endured the situation, even if they developed competition with the Italian maritime republics, except for two developing factors.

Trade through the Maritime Republics was beginning to collapse. For a number of years the Silk Road trade route had been under the control of the mighty Mongol Empire, the largest continuous land empire ever built by mankind. For a long time the Mongols had encouraged trade with the Arabic states and, through them, with the far west. Many caravans passed through the Silk Road in complete safety. The founder of Islam, Muhammad, may have traversed it. After the road left the realm of the Mongols, it was protected by the Seljuk Turks. All of this helped to keep costs down and ensured that trade was able to continue at as brisk a pace as was possible. It aided in the wealth of the Republics. It also aided in the envy of the Atlantic states.

But with the collapse of the unified Mongol Empire and the rise of the Ottomans, a different situation arose. With the Mongol Empire breaking up, pockets along the road arose where it was not safe to travel. And because the Venetians had encouraged the attack of the Byzantine Empire, they had unknowingly encouraged the rise of the Ottoman Turks who were more interested in conquest than trade. The Ottomans saw trade as a means to raise money to pay for soldiers in order to continue their conquests. Naturally the caravans were heavily taxed.

The result was that trade through the Maritime Republics became much more expensive.

The second factor was the explorations that were encouraged by Henrique the Duque de Viseu. Known outside Portugal as The Navigator, Henrique had started the ambitious exploration program of Portugal that kept sending ships southward along the African continent. By 1490, Bartolomeu Dias had reached the Cape of Good Hope. This event had far reaching consequences in more ways than one.

Among the people who were sailing for the Portuguese was a Genovese merchantman by the name of Cristoforo Colombo. There have been multiple claims as to where he originated, one claiming Scotland, another Corsica, a third Poland and yet another Portugal. Tradition has him being the son of a weaver, but I find no evidence to support this. His son Fernando Colombo, claimed he was the descendant of a Conte Colombo of Castle Cuccaro, located in the province of Alessandria, near Genova, making him a minor noble. Based on his life and his marriage his being a minor noble actually makes the most sense; Genoese nobility almost had to know the sea and the life of a sailing officer would be all but demanded. Origins aside, he was an ambitious individual and, having studied Latin, was now calling himself by the Latinized version of his name, Christophorus Columbus. For some reason we do not know, he left the service of Genova and entered into the service of Portugal. He had married Filipa Moniz Perestrelo, the daughter of a Portuguese Cavaleiro (the Portuguese Caballero) of Santiago, a minor nobleman who had been a member of Prince Henrique’s household. The two would have five happy years together before she died. Through her, he learned everything about what her father had been doing and the ambitions of the Portuguese as they had sailed south. He had his own ideas, based on certain ancient Greek calculations which were very accurate. But Columbus, reading the Arabic texts, interpreted the distances incorrectly; he failed to realize the Arabic mile was much longer than the Roman mile. So, Columbus, reading the Arabic sources using the Arabic mile and calculating the equations using the Roman mile, thought that the world was a few thousand miles smaller in circumference than it really was.

It has been said that Columbus was an anomaly in that he knew that the earth was round when most of the intelligentsia of the world believed it was flat. Nothing could be further from the truth. Almost every seaman knew that the earth had to be round, watching land mass sink into and rise from the sea would be enough to prove it to them. But furthermore, the intelligentsia was by now familiar with both Aristotle’s proof that the earth had to be round and the calculations of Ptolemy which not only showed the spherical nature of the earth but did a good job of determining its size as well.

To be honest, João was quite intrigued by the claims of Columbus that one could reach the Indies by sailing west. The Portuguese were quite aware that the earth was round, they knew that Columbus made sense. But they also knew that they were on the fast track to reach the Indies very soon. So there was not much interest. But João did not reject Columbus outright. It is likely he decided to hold off on the designs of Columbus till after trade was established with the Indies. After all, there was always the possibility that Cathay and the other lands that Marco Polo had written about might end up being closer if one sailed west. One step at a time!

This, however, did not sit well with Columbus. He was an ambitious individual who wanted greatness. If the court of King João would not aid him, he would go elsewhere. He sent his brother Bartolomeo to the court of King Henry of England. Unfortunately for Columbus’s designs, Bartolomeo was kidnapped by pirates in the English Channel, likely French pirates, and it was a number of years before Bartolomeo could approach the throne of Henry. By the time he did, fate had dictated another direction for Columbus.

After Filipa died, Columbus traveled to the court of Isabel and Fernando of the nations of Castile and Aragón. But when he arrived there was not much they could do. The final war with Grenada was being fought, Abdallah the last leader of Grenada had called for aid from fellow Muslim princes and their Catholic Majesties were fighting to complete the Reconquista. Columbus had to travel with the two monarchs as they laid siege to Grenada. He was also there when Isabel issued her edict that expelled Jews from the kingdom of Castile – Fernando issued a similar edict which covered Aragón. But she gave him a salary to remain with them while they dealt with these issues. Then, with Grenada settled, the two monarchs turned their attention towards the ambitions of Columbus.

Isabel agreed to make Columbus the Spanish Admiral of the Seas, governor and viceroy of any lands he could control and to give him a portion of all the profits that resulted from opening trade relations. Isabel also agreed to provide the ships needed by Columbus for his voyage. Columbus had gotten all he wanted.

One must ask why the royal couple gave Columbus everything he wanted. It seemed strange that the monarch of Castile was giving an Italian sailor who had lived so long in Portugal such promises. After all, he was largely untried as a commander, there were more experienced sailors who could do the job. But there were multiple reasons why Isabel gave Columbus everything he asked for.

The first reason, of course, was that only Columbus was thinking of reaching the east by sailing west. It was a logical enough argument, even their Catholic Majesties were aware of the roundness of the earth. Isabel was especially intrigued by the idea; since the Portuguese had control over the route south around Africa, a route west to Cathay might boost Hispanic fortunes.

But there was a second reason, one that was quite dark indeed, and not in the way one would normally think. Believing that the world was larger than Columbus thought, neither Fernando nor Isabel believed Columbus would succeed. This, of course, leads to a very interesting question: why would the monarchs give such a great promise to a man they thought would not succeed? Because such a promise was cheap, it cost nothing to give.

The reasoning behind this was coldly pragmatic. Their Catholic Monarchs considered it likely that Columbus would return without having discovered anything; if that happened he would be disgraced. Of course, it was possible that Columbus was obsessed and would push onward to his doom; well many a sailor died while sailing, their corpses sinking to the depths of the sea. Why throw good money into a perilous and likely disastrous enterprise? So there was no risk in making such a promise. But the promise was made because the potential was great indeed. After all, if Columbus managed to return, especially after having dropped anchor in Cathay, Nihon or the Indies, well then the crown of Castile would gain so much that keeping the promise would be cheap. High positions were even then political appointments, given for political reasons. All Columbus had to do to obtain the appointments was to succeed in his endeavor.

That said, the expedition had to be paid for. And it was Castile that paid for it. But it was not that costly, Isabel was able to finance it on the cheap. The story that Isabel threatened to sell her jewels to pay for the trip is a false story made to make Isabel subservient to her husband. In reality she was the one who paid for the entire expedition out of Castile’s treasury. The sailors received their pay from her. And she provided the ships. But the ships were likely the cheapest part of the deal. She did not pay anything for the two smallest ships, the ships known as Niña and Pinta were collected by Isabel due to a debt owed the crown. As for the Santa Maria, well she had to pay for that ship, but she succeeded in not paying much.

Small, agile and well built, if old, the Niña and Pinta were Caravel class ships, they had been designed for exploration and served Columbus quite well. We do not know the name of the Pinta, but the Niña’s real name was the Santa Clara. Martín Alonso Pinzón, part owner of the two ships, and his two brothers, Francisco Martin and Vincente Yáñez, would accompany Columbus as captains and masters of these vessels. The third, the Santa Maria, maybe the only ship whose name did come down to us directly, was a Nao class trader, its owner, Juan de la Costa served as master of the ship.

I do not need to recount the perilous voyage in this book, it has been talked about in countless tomes and stories and is well known to most people, both of European and Amerindian descent. I will point out that it was claimed Columbus was not the best captain, he was considered to be a bit too harsh with the men, though it must be pointed out that one of the ships masters who reputedly made the claim, de la Costa, sailed with Columbus on his second and third voyages, so he could not have been that bad. All that needs to be said is that after a perilous voyage of over two months where nothing was seen but the deep blue, when the crew was ready to revolt and turn home, land was finally sighted.

Columbus thought he had found the Indies, or at least the isles far to the east of India. He was right in one regard, the isles he found were far to the east of Cathay. But he was very wrong about finding the Indies for he had merely found something else, isles of a large north to south landmass that blocked the route to the orient that he thought he had found. There was never a more fortuitous, or harmful depending on your viewpoint, fact.

In this first voyage, Columbus was not the great and noble person that many Europeans claimed he was, neither was he the ogre of meanness and depravity that so many Amerindians like to claim he was. In nature, he was actually better than most of the people who would sail to the Americas, many in his crew were worse. He constantly had to side with the natives against his own crew over the way the crew acted towards the natives. He also forbade his crew to trade worthless junk for what the natives wanted to give. But if Columbus was not as vile, or as noble, as either side like to claim, he was still the perfect representative of the average European during that day. One of his logs has the following entry: Arrived on shore, saw very green trees, many streams of water, and diverse sorts of fruits. Columbus saw it not as a Native American would see it but rather as a European of the time would see it, as a resource to be used. He also imposed European names on all the isles he reached, though he did record that the natives called isle he named San Salvador Guanaham. This viewpoint made him the most accurate representative of Europeans as they were at that time.

Not everything went smoothly for Columbus. The Santa Maria, the largest of the three ships, was wrecked off the coast of the Isle of Hispaniola; he was forced to build a fortress where certain sailors, sailors who had committed more crimes than others, were exiled, though only after he obtained permission from the local chief to build the fortress. The inhabitants of the fortress, some of them exceedingly depraved, would continue in their depravity. After Columbus left they would exasperate the natives who would eventually turn and massacre them; they thoroughly deserved their fate.

Columbus stocked his remaining two ships with all sorts of plants and birds, as well as some gold and silver. It must have been a very poor cargo that Columbus took back with him, about the only items of value were the gold and silver ornaments he had obtained. He also brought over some natives with him. Many like to claim that he enslaved them, many histories talk about all the people he kidnapped during this voyage, but I find this hard to believe. Columbus himself provides evidence to the contrary. In a letter to their majesties (technically to Luis de Sant Angel, the Chancellor of the Exchequer) he describes the natives in these words:

They have no iron or steel or weapons, nor are they fitted to use them. This is not because they are not well built for they are of handsome stature, but because they are marvelously timorous. They have no other arms than spears made of canes, cut in seeding time, to the ends of which they fix a small sharpened stick. Of these they do not dare to make use, for many times it has happened that I have sent ashore two or three men to some town to have speech with them, and countless people have come out to them, and as soon as they have seen my men approaching, they have fled, a father not even waiting for his son. … It is true that, after they have been reassured and have lost this fear, they are so guileless and so generous with all that they possess, that no one would believe it who has not seen it. They refuse nothing that they possess, if it be asked of them; on the contrary, they invite any one to share it and display as much love as if they would give their hearts. They are content with whatever trifle of whatever kind that may be given to them, whether it be of value or valueless. I forbade that they should be given things so worthless as fragments of broken crockery, scraps of broken and lace tips, although when they were able to get them, they fancied that they possessed the best jewel in the world.

A man who would forbid worthless items be given or traded to the natives is not the type of man who would then stoop to kidnapping, at least willingly. Even if Columbus had been the ogre so many want to make him out to be, it is evident that he had no need to kidnap anyone during this voyage. It is true he did capture a few natives, but he did so because the natives were so timid and he needed to learn the language, this he did with alacrity. It is doubtless in my mind that Columbus simply encouraged several natives to sail back. And as they were so generous, it is likely that the gold he obtained was given to him by the natives, almost certainly for some cloth.

From all of this we have a very interesting picture we can paint of Columbus. He was a standard European, seeing everything as a resource. He was certainly respectful of the natives, even standing with them against his own crew, and it is doubtful he kidnapped any of them. There is an excellent chance that the crew spread the rumor about Columbus’s nastiness on his first voyage out of disgust with their commander; they had not been allowed to do as they want. From this, we can determine he had a certain magnanimity that was lacking in much of his crew and certainly lacking in many of those who came after him. It makes what happened in the fateful second voyage all the more odious.

During the voyage back the Atlantic finally responded with all the fury it could give. The Pinta was separated from the Niña. We do not know much of what happened to the Pinta, but its captain, Martín Alonso Pinzón, managed to arrive at Bayonne, southern France, before Columbus set anchor in Lisboa. Sadly, he managed to arrive home just in time to die from a terrible illness. At least the Pinta made it back to Castile.

Columbus and Niña finally arrived in Lisboa harbor thanks to yet another storm. There he talked to King João of Portugal. It is said that João told Columbus that his voyage was in violation of treaty. But it does not seem that the king blamed Columbus for the two parted on friendly terms. Besides, it is reputed that João saved Columbus from assassins.

Columbus returned to España, entering the Harbor of Palos de la Frontera on the 15th of March, 1493. Word about what Columbus had achieved spread rapidly. But the meeting between the sailor and their Most Catholic Majesties was not that triumphant. Unfortunately, the few trinkets of gold and silver were all that the Spanish monarchs really looked at. Columbus’ voyage had been, first and foremost, a commercial venture, even though it was on the cheap it was still considered to be a commercial flop. Isabel was very disappointed; she had been hoping for great wealth and was dismayed that Columbus returned with almost nothing to show for his voyage. Columbus hastened to reassure her that there was gold and spices to be obtained there. He also pointed out the friendliness of the natives and stated that the land was ripe for colonization. In a letter to their majesties, he even expressed his hope that the natives would be converted to Christianity and grow to love their Spanish monarchs. Finally, he painted a picture of the spices and gold he had found, this part was a lie but he knew that to say the truth to their Catholic Majesties would be to court doom. The two monarchs agreed and, keeping their promise, made Columbus Admiral of the seas, as well as governor and viceroy of the new lands.

The two monarchs decided that the lands found were suitable for colonization. The very catholic sensibilities of Isabel convinced her that the natives needed to be converted; this gave an official sanction and an excuse to return. Isabel especially made Columbus promise that he would treat the natives with respect, even with love, Columbus was certainly agreeable.

But there was a price. The two monarchs decided that they would get half of all the gold and silver that was found. Literally a tax of 50%. It was the only way that they would agree to a second voyage. Isabel funded the fleet a second time. But in funding it, she basically issued Columbus an unspoken warning. Isabel had funded the fleet on the promise that there would be an economic gain, a nice profit for the crown. Columbus had to deliver the profit, or else.

One year later Columbus returned at the head of a much larger fleet, seventeen ships in all. Many on the ships traveled as settlers. The whole purpose was to discover the gold that their Catholic Majesties wanted and to establish Castilian control over the lands. Unfortunately, the locations Columbus went to did not, for the most part, provide the gold the Catholic Monarchs desired.

Columbus faced ruin. It was impossible for him to obtain the profit their Catholic Majesties wanted while maintaining a respectful and loving relation with the natives. Isabel had, unwittingly, created a situation for disaster. And Columbus, being ambitious, had walked right into it. Faced with such a situation, many a better man than Columbus would likely have done what he did, focused on the pragmatic financial side of his orders. This is not to place full responsibility with Isabel, nor does it exonerate Columbus. Monarchs the world over were largely guided by the need for money. And Columbus had accepted the position. In agreeing to become governor and viceroy, he also shouldered the blame for all he would do, even the acts he would have to do. He had nobody to blame but himself. This includes something that, per what we have learned of him due to the first voyage, was an act that he was morally opposed to, the starting of the enslavement of the natives. There were too many coldly pragmatic financial reasons to do so.

That said, there were technical details in what Columbus did. To deal with all that needed to be done, Columbus started the Encomienda system. Native Americans love to claim that this was how Columbus enslaved them. In actuality, Columbus, if I may coin the term, enserfed them. Making the native serfs was only marginally better than making them