The Essentials: Dual Language Learners in Diverse Environments in Preschool and Kindergarten

By Iliana Alanís, María G. Arreguín and Irasema Salinas-González

• This book answers the question what do early childhood educators need to understand to better address the linguistic, cognitive, and socio-emotional needs of all DLLs in their classrooms?
• There are over 350 languages spoken within the U.S (U.S. Census, 2015). This means emergent bilingual children come from a variety of cultural and linguistic backgrounds. While teachers cannot be expected to teach in all languages, the basic principles of this book help teachers gain a richer understanding of the interdependent relationship among culture, language, and learning.
• With this understanding, teachers can implement intentional practices that nurture children’s bilingual identities and augment their growth in all developmental domains through the concepts and strategies presented in this text.

• Language: English
• Publisher: The National Association for the Education of Young Children
• Release date: Feb 9, 2021
• ISBN: 9781938113826

Book preview

1

Who Are Dual Language Learners?

Objectives

›  Discuss the significance of the labels used for dual language learners.

›  Identify the demographic characteristics of dual language learners within the United States and within your context.

›  Determine how you will develop reciprocal and respectful relationships with families.

Mrs. Olivas is leading a class of emergent bilingual 3-year-olds to the outdoor play area. As they walk along, she tells the children to listen for the birds chirping in the trees. Diego points up to the tree and excitedly says, "¡Mira! ¡Birds en los árboles! (Look! Birds in the trees!) Mrs. Olivas smiles and responds, Yes, Diego, there are many colorful birds in the trees." That afternoon, when Diego’s mother arrives to pick him up from school, Mrs. Olivas takes a few minutes to speak with her in Spanish. She knows Diego’s mother has been anxious about his adjustment to a large group setting and wants to reassure her that he is adjusting and progressing as expected. Mrs. Olivas also wants to encourage her to talk with Diego in Spanish about the various birds they see at home.

Mrs. Olivas has been intentional in her efforts to establish and reinforce a reciprocal relationship built on communication, trust, and mutual respect with children and their families. She has spent a significant amount of time getting to know Diego and his family. She learned that Diego is an only child and a sequential bilingual learner who is learning English at school.

As early childhood educators engage in equitable teaching and learning for all children, it is imperative that they understand the multifaceted lives of dual language learners and their families. Effective educators establish partnerships with families and learn about their cultural capital. Educators also understand how history and language policies influence schooling for children. In this case, Diego is enrolled in a dual language program with a certified bilingual teacher. The district has him labeled as a native Spanish speaker and dual language learner. For Mrs. Olivas, however, the labels reflect only one aspect of Diego’s identity. For her, Diego is a precocious 3-year-old who enjoys playing outside, building structures in the block center, and listening to birds in the trees. Her focus is on helping him acclimate to school while developing his linguistic, socioemotional, and academic skills.

We begin this chapter with a discussion about the significance of the many labels used to describe young bilingual children. Additionally, we identify the current demographics of DLLs and the diversity found within bilingual families. We focus, however, on the need to gather substantial information about children and their families that will guide programmatic and instructional decisions as you work toward meeting their diverse needs. We conclude with strategies to develop positive, reciprocal relationships with bilingual families within your context.

Why So Many Labels?

Throughout history, linguistically diverse children in the United States have had many labels. These include the federal terms of limited English proficient (LEP), English language learners (ELLs), bilinguals, and dual language learners (DLLs). These labels have changed as our views about children learning two languages while in school have evolved. For example, LEP highlighted children’s inability to speak English and focused on the goal of English language acquisition. This deficit perspective ignored the language skills children brought to the classroom, led to deficit practices, and communicated the implicit message that children’s home languages were wrong or inappropriate in the academic context.

To move away from the deficit LEP term, the ELL label was used to identify children with a native language other than English. In essence, all children are English language learners. Thus, the term can easily describe native English speakers who are developing a deeper understanding of the English language at school. Researchers argued for the label emergent bilinguals to reflect the bilingual continuum and children’s entire range of linguistic skills as opposed to the language they have not acquired (García, Kleifgen, & Falchi 2008). Hence, the labels we use reveal our beliefs about what languages and/or cultures are valued and reinforce and influence our practices in the classroom.

emergent bilinguals

A term that reflects the potential of children to become bilingual and biliterate as bilingualism emerges (Garcia & Kleyn 2016).

language minority

Children growing up in a home where a language other than English is primarily spoken. The term often carries a less important social status and misrepresents the fact that in some schools, these children are in the majority.

As dual language programs became more prominent and successful within bilingual education, the term dual language learner emerged. This label identified children learning two languages within a bilingual education program setting. The National Head Start Act (2007) defined dual language learners as language minority children between the ages of 2 and 5 years who speak a non-English language at home but who are not necessarily enrolled in a dual language program (Head Start 2008, 2). NAEYC adopted the term dual language learners to refer to young children (ages 0–8) who are learning a second language while continuing to develop their first language.

When we label children, we create categories that do not necessarily reflect the multiple types of linguistic diversity often present in one child (García & Kleifgen 2010). Ultimately, it is more important to focus on learning more about children’s cultural and linguistic assets and the multiple sociocultural factors that influence their experiences at school. Following the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (NASEM 2017) report, in this book, we define dual language learners as children between the ages of 3 and 5 learning a second or third language at school.

Who Are Dual Language Learners?

Dual language learners in US schools represent a variety of linguistic and socioeconomic backgrounds and reside within the majority of our 50 states and US territories. DLLs are also located on American Indian tribal lands and Alaska Native communities (NASEM 2017). Some are second-generation immigrants and come from households with low income where a language other than English is primarily spoken. Others are recent immigrants who are new to US norms and school culture. Many DLLs may have a parent who is an immigrant, but they were born in the United States (Gándara & Ee 2018; González-Barrera, López, & Ruhal 2015). Immigrant children combined with children born of immigrants represent 25 percent of the population (NASEM 2017). Asian Americans represent the fastest growing racial/ethnic group in the United States with the majority of Asian families arriving from mainland China, Hong Kong, and Taiwan (Lee & Zhou 2015). According to the National Clearinghouse for English Language Acquisition (NCELA), Mexico remains the country of origin for the majority of immigrants in the United States with Latino children accounting for the majority of all immigrant youth (2018). These children come from South, Central, and Latin America. In the 2015–16 school year, Latino youth represented 75 percent of DLLs in US public schools (NCELA 2018). California, Texas, Florida, and Illinois report the highest share of Spanish-speaking DLLs, with over 62 percent (Capps 2015). There has been an increase in Latino immigrants in midwestern and southeastern states, such as Nevada (27.3 percent), Washington (11.7 percent), North Carolina (8.7 percent), Pennsylvania (6.1 percent), and Virginia (8.4 percent) (NASEM 2017).

What Languages Do Dual Language Learners Speak?

As a varied racial and ethnic population, DLLs represent many languages and dialects at varying levels of proficiency (Crosnoe & López-Turley 2011). In the 2015–16 school year, the United States reported the five most common languages as Spanish/Castilian, Arabic, Chinese, Vietnamese, and Somali (NCELA 2018). (See Figure 1.1.) The number of Arabic-speaking children has increased dramatically within the last 10 years. Michigan and Maine report the highest concentration of Arabic-speaking children, at 26 percent and 11 percent, respectively. Of the Arabic-speaking population, 12 percent are enrolled in preschool and kindergarten (NCELA 2018). During the 2015–16 school year, West Virginia (9.9 percent), New York (9.2 percent), and Pennsylvania (4.9 percent) had the highest percentages of DLLs who spoke Chinese as a home language (NCELA 2018). Spanish, however, remains the most commonly spoken non-English language in US homes (González-Barrera & López 2013). According to the US Department of Health and Human Services (2018), 22 percent of DLLs enrolled in Head Start speak Spanish at home; however, Head Start children and their families speak more than 140 languages.

Figure 1.1. Most common languages spoken by DLLs. (Source: NCELA 2018.)

Getting to Know DLLs in Your Context

Dual language learners’ patterns of continuous growth reveal the urgency in adopting initiatives, curricula, and pedagogy that effectively serve their academic, linguistic, and socioemotional needs. This necessitates that educators understand and address the needs of DLLs within their local contexts. In this section, we move to the need to gather information about the children and their families within your center or school.

An initial conversation with families will help you establish meaningful partnerships that will lead to children’s overall success. Families are experts when it comes to their children and their development (Copple & Bredekamp 2009). As such, learn what is appropriate in each child’s family and community (Souto-Manning 2013). Learning about the social, linguistic, and cultural backgrounds of the children at your center or school helps you understand who they are and where they come from. This understanding is crucial to provide effective support for their learning and development.

What If You Do Not Speak the Family’s Language?

›  Hire bilingual staff members who can serve as interpreters.

›  Cultivate the linguistic wealth of your community; find members of the community who speak the family’s language.

›  Invite current family members to speak with new families.

›  Hire translators and/or bilingual staff to support families with the enrollment and screening process.

›  Contact your local college or university’s bilingual education or foreign language education department to hire translators and/or interpreters.

To meet families’ needs, it will also be helpful if you know the families at your center or school. For example, did families move into your community because a family member is attending a local university? Alternatively, are families moving into your area to find employment? Or seeking political asylum? It is helpful to know who cares for the child. As of the writing of this book, the United States has experienced an increase in unaccompanied minors and/or children separated from their families at the border; therefore, some children in your center may not be living with their biological parents but with extended family members or caregivers (Dreby 2015). Schools are also seeing an increase in refugee families who have experienced conflict and trauma. This trend will likely continue. What resources do the families of the children you teach need to adjust to their new community? Answers to these questions can inform decisions in terms of instruction, family involvement, and school-wide initiatives.

While it is recommended to learn more about each family’s background and context, it is not appropriate to ask about a family’s immigration status. All children have the right to a public education regardless of citizenship or residency status, as indicated in the 1982 Plyler v. Doe US Supreme Court case. Review your current registration forms and requirements for unnecessary questions (e.g., it is not necessary to ask for a child’s social security number). Read questions on enrollment forms from a family’s perspective, and be respectful of their decision not to provide information.

Plyler v. Doe

US Supreme Court case that indicates that states cannot constitutionally deny children a free public education because of their immigration status (American Immigration Council 2016).

What Languages Do Your DLLs Speak?

As indicated earlier, DLLs represent a variety of language groups. To gain a better understanding of children’s linguistic assets and how to meet their linguistic needs, inquire about the language(s) spoken at home and by whom. Some children from Guatemala and Mexico, for example, may speak indigenous languages such as Mayan or Mixtec—sometimes in addition to Spanish—and are also learning a third language (English) at school (Kovats Sánchez 2018). As more immigrant children arrive at your school or center, it will be necessary to determine the multiple languages children may be proficient in within their home context (see Language Inventory in Chapter 6 and Home Language Survey in Chapter 8). Regardless of where children are from or what languages they speak, all children have the right to receive high-quality instruction in an environment that values and embraces their linguistic and cultural assets.

Strategies to Develop Relationships with DLLs and Their Families in Your Context

Given the changing demographics, it is crucial for teachers to create culturally and linguistically responsive environments that incorporate families’ cultural and linguistic resources. There are multiple considerations when creating opportunities to engage families in children’s learning and development. Begin with simple but relevant steps that will help you develop and nurture reciprocal relationships with families.

Create a Welcoming and Respectful Environment

High-quality programs create a welcoming environment (Copple & Bredekamp 2009) that reflects families’ communication tools, resources, and personal connection. The environment within the common areas of your center or school and individual classrooms should affirm families’ languages. Large banners or signs that read Welcome to our school in multiple languages, for example, display respect for various languages. Provide the necessary supports to your front office staff who are often the first representatives of a program to interact with families. Bilingual staff will help families feel reassured that their presence and diversity are valued. These might also include translated documents, access to interpreters, or community resources. Keep in mind, it is not appropriate to ask children to translate for their families. This creates an uncomfortable situation between families and children and can damage their relationships (Adair & Barraza 2019).

Use a variety of formal and informal means (e.g., emails, phone calls, home visits) to reach out and welcome families into your center or school community. Consider the significance of making this outreach personal and face-to-face. Ask families about their preferred means of communication. Once the school year begins, texting families can be an effective method to maintain communication (Loeb & York 2016). Helping families feel welcomed and respected will build positive relationships that lead to long-term positive student outcomes (Martinez-Hickman & Amaro-Jiménez 2018).

Validate Children’s Languages and Identities

To demonstrate support and respect for bilingual families, attempt to learn some of the home languages of the children you teach. Families appreciate when teachers learn basic phrases like Hello, how are you? and Thank you (Adair & Barraza 2019). Ask family members for additional