1900 45 From Atom Models to Atomic Bomb- Year 1942- English Edition: Year 1942 Volume

By F. Scognamiglio

Generally the golden period of Physics is identified in the period running from 1900 to 1945 and which sees the birth and consolidation of fundamental theories such as Relativity and Quantum Mechanics. A collection of the original scientific publications that marked the stages of this process is re-proposed for a historical reading of that period, keeping its chronology for years. This document traces the history of the Manhattan Project from 1941 to the Trinity Test in 1945 through the presentation of historical documents of the time ,
many have only recently been declassified.  It is the story of one of the most important projects in history activated and completed in just three years and with theoretical knowledges still to be consolidated. Through the reading of the volume, the moments that led to the explosion of the first atomic bomb in a desert in the USA are retraced. The tension between the present visual witnesses of the event is relived in the knowledge that a possible failure would have determined unimaginable consequences. After 1945 and after the dramatic explosions on Hiroshima and Nagasaki with their load of death and devastation, the balance of power between Nations will change and the Atomic era will determine a new condition of coexistence between subsequent generations. The volume of the same series, already published and dedicated to 1945, to which reference should be made to complete the historical analysis of that period, focuses its discussion on the tragic events linked to the launch of the two bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki.
Useful for research, insights and study, as well as for simple consultation and reading, the volume is a "must" for lovers of History and History of Physics.

Notes on the Author.
Francesco Scognamiglio is an independent author of informative texts on Physics and History of Science and Technology. Graduated in Engineering with AeroSpaziale specialization he has passionately cultivated a particular interest in the knowledge of the fundamental laws that govern natural phenomena, trying to transmit knowledge even to those who would not have easy access to the subject for its high specialized content. For this purpose he  is supported by many years of experience in training and teaching activities , addressing also the interest for deepening the peculiar philosophical and historical aspects. And it is precisely the particular attention to a scientific historical reconstruction of the evolution of the new Atomic Theories in the period from 1900 to 1945, which guides the author in the presentation of important historical documents and dramatic original testimonies of the period examined.

• Language: English
• Publisher: FreeLance
• Release date: Nov 24, 2020
• ISBN: 9791220226943

Book preview

General Index

Preface

Bibliography

Timeline of Quantum Mechanics

Nobel Physics Prizes

Events Cronology 

Interactive Content Index Year 1942

1900-1945

From atom models to atomic bomb

How modern physics develops

Collection of scientific publications of  historical importance

Preface

The volumes that form this collection are intended to trace the history of quantum physics and the Atom from its birth, generally dated to 1900, until 1945 when the most important scientific project for the time was realized and which determined the birth of the atomic age. History, however, has given us the first real trial of the new type of energy, through the vision of its fearful destructive capacity following the launch and explosion of the two nuclear bombs over Hiroshima and Nagasaki on August 6 and August 9, 1945, respectively. And the very effect of this historic event, together with the rapid progress of the scientific knowledge that had allowed it, are the basis of the reason for this excursus: documenting how human knowledge has progressed in its determination to discover the secrets of a world inaccessible to classical experimentation on a journey to completely unknown frontiers; until on 1945 it reached a mature stage to manipulate that atom that just at the beginning of the century had put all the physicists of the time in difficulty. In fact, the first thirty years of the century coincide with the so-called golden years of physics, which saw the birth and evolution as if by magic two fundamental theories deeply revolutionary: Einstein's Relativity and Quantum Mechanics. The golden age of physics is historically studied also because strongly intertwined with the historiography of life as well as the works of the same physicists, many of them passed to notoriety little more than twenty years in a particular international context (English and German physicists protagonists) destined to change completely after 1945. Having been a fervent period of ideas and historical changes, there is a full-bodied bibliography that treats and studies it by detecting its aspects of interest for all areas of not only scientific knowledge. The review contained in this work therefore does not want to be neither a history of 20th century physics nor a text of popular and less scientific physics. In fact, it merely collects in an organic vision dictated by historical chronology the scientific works published in the various Specialist Journals of Physics ; works that historically determine the development and the progress of the theories and application formalisms of the first 40 years of the twentieth century until the event of the outbreak of the first atomic bomb made possible , not without qualms and notes of dissent, thanks to the knowledge so quickly acquired. The inspiration to investigate and select the works certainly originates from the story of one of the most important Italian physicists of the period, Enrico Fermi celebrated with numerous initiatives in the United States but son of an Italy that raised and distinguished him until 1938 when at the age of 37 he suddenly assumed the decision to move with his entire family to the Usa due to the entry into force of racial laws against Jews. Still like so many others (Pauli, Heisenberg, Born, De Broglie, Dirac, Jordan) already very young he showed his genius in the understanding of Physics and Mathematics and soon, immediately after the degree in Physics obtained at the Normal Higher School of Pisa, he will have the burden of organizing the new department of Physics in the University in Rome. Fermi is said to have already consulted and understood , when still a young student , university-level physics and mathematics texts , such as Orest Cwolsson's Traite' de Physique and Poisson's Traite' De Mecanique. A genius not very different from Einstein who at only 25 years old and still not working in the university, published in 1905 the Fundamental Theory of Restricted Relativity, destined to revolutionize the boundaries of Physics. The exciting element for those who are approaching the ideas and knowledge in the field of atom physics and quantum physics, lies precisely in the highly innovative character of the discoveries and the matter that was being investigated, about a reality such as the atoms , subtracted from the possibility of its direct or indirect detection with traditional methodologies. At the beginning, some phenomena such as the Radiation of the Black Body, the Zeeman effect, the continuous spectrum of beta emissions or photoelectric phenomena were not understood; all phenomena that will gradually have their scientific explanation but at the cost of overcoming some principles of Classical Physics considered irrefutable. And precisely to access the dynamic with which ideas were formed and try to capture the reasoning, demonstrations, hypotheses, postulates taken in the historical phases that denoted this development, it was considered interesting to consult the original publications signed by the most authoritative and well-known physicists of the time almost all of them were awarded the Nobel Prize. The collection covers the period from 1900 to 1945 but there are also in very limited numbers some works published in the previous century, important to understand the subsequent evolution. However, fundamental works such as the formulation of Maxwell and X-ray theories and Rongten, Becquerel and Curie discoveries were not included. The chronology begins with the presentation of Planck's paper, which introduces the concept of quantization of energy to continue the development of the atomic and nuclear theories of Rutherford and Bohr, arriving at a first effective consolidation of knowledge through the theory and mathematical formalism of Quantum mechanics. Formalism that is created from 1925 with the new theories of Heisenberg and Schrodinger and is consolidated already in 1930 at a consolidated stage mature to be inherited, for the essential aspects and merit, by the modernity of our times. The years from 1930 onwards are characterized by the acquisition of the increasingly precise knowledge of the atom and its nucleus obtained with brilliant and effective experimental methods also with regard to the particularity and elegance of their ideation (Camera Wilson, Particle Accelerator, Cyclotron, Atomic Stack).  

 It was not until 1932 that the neutron was discovered, that in 1934 Fermi theorizes the process of Beta decay by proposing the existence of Pauli's neutrino (experimentally confirmed only in 1956) that finally, in 1939, the nuclear fission process was discovered experimentally. At this point the history of men and nations with its political and sociological decisions, takes over the secrets that have come to light in the university laboratories, to present Physics and its protagonists in making possible one of the most exciting and destructive events in the history of Humanity: the explosion of two atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Three tabs have been prepared for the reconstruction of these events relating to the publication of works of scientific interest published on 1939, 1942 and 1945. 

 Each card, referring to a year or years in succession, lists the works (papers) of pre-eminent scientific interest published or sent for publication in the reference year. The selected documents refer to the papers published in the original versions which could be accessed with free consultation on Internet. Their use is to be considered functional exclusively to the objectives of this selection limited to a private and non-commercial use of the documentary material used. For ease of reading, following this preface, the chronologies of the fundamental stages that characterize the history of physics in the reference period, are included . It is important to note, however, that for the understanding of documents, a basic knowledge of mathematics and physics is necessary, which can sometimes be limited to a general knowledge from high school or university entry level (e.g. differential and integral equations) ; moreover sometime this level may not be sufficient, but advanced specialist knowledge is needed, if one wishes to enter into the merits of the mathematical concepts and formalities of some content of quantum mechanics or particle physics. In any case, it is possible to consult an extensive bibliography of selected texts or notes selected entirely through personal criteria, also characterized according to their level of specialization. Finally, one cannot fail to mention the component of the ego that originated somewhat in this initiative, given that one of the initial intentions also included the acquisition on the market of antiques, books, documents or original texts of the time dating back to the first decades of the twentieth century. This effort has, however, proved incompatible because of the high cost, due also to their rarities, of historical publications still available on the market. The alternative availability obtained with Internet access still manages to overcome this lack. The collection does not pursue the purpose nor claims to treat the subject with scientific, historical and didactic rigour and is necessarily not complete. It is, however, the result of a laborious research conducted through the consultation of hundreds of documents on the Internet and those who propose it, can be satisfied if even the slightest can promote in the reader a minimum of interest and passion to deepen the matter. The remarkable and extensive bibliography on the topics covered, reproduced in a very limited way in the list below is certainly useful for access to information and knowledge that can facilitate the understanding of the contents of the papers. 

 Those papers which were published to be shared by the community of scientists and physics specialists, often are full of mathematical formalisms and concepts of not simple reading. For further study, however, only an excursus of the texts and documents indicated in the following list is recommended, also available according to the classification of their degree of specialization. Most of these documents are digitally attached in the extended edition of this collection. The collection is also offered in a partial form for year or group of years, for the purpose of their easier publication online. 

 With the hope of instilling that curiosity that made this collection possible.

A Good Reading

FS

May 2019

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BIBLIOGRAPHY 

In-depth attachment texts :

Classification:

-Informative-Descriptive text that does not require special knowledge of mathematics and physics.

-A BASIC -Text that requires a basic knowledge of mathematics and physics including notions of derivatives and integrals.

-B INTERMEDIATE -Text that requires intermediate knowledge of mathematics and physics including notions based on the formulation of partial derivatives and the resolution of differential equations.

-C SPECIALISTIC -Text that requires in-depth and specialized knowledge of advanced mathematics and quantum and nuclear physics.

B,C From Einstein to Jordan and Dirac: The Birth of Quantum Electrodynamics- Luisa Bonolis- University of Rome

B,C The failure of classical physics and the advent of quantum mechanics- M. Saleem- IOP Publishing-2015

B    The birth of quantum mechanics -S.Califano,V.Schettino-Firenze University Press-2018

B     Nuclear Reactions -PPT Version

Inform. From the Dawn of Nuclear Physics to the First Atomic Bombs-Autori vari-Asian Journal of PhysicsVol 23- 2014

Inform. Neutron Physics in the Early 1930s -A.De Gregorio

B,C  The Mechanic of The Atom-M.Born-1927

B,C   Atomica-Dispense-M.De Physics

A      Statistical Mechanics Formule

B     Schrodinger equation

A     Physics Lectures -Feynman

C     Lessons in Particle Physics-L.Anchordoqui,F.Halzen-University Wisconsin-2009

C     Elementary Quantum Mechanics-D.Saxon-University California-1968

B,C  Introduction To Quantum Mechanics-A.C. Philips-University Manchester-2003

A     The Formal Structure of Quantum Mechanics-L.Colombo-Lombardo Institute- 2017

A     Elements of quantum mechanics-L. Lozzi-Eagle University

A     Quantum Theory of the Atom(Cap 6)-A.Citterio-http://iscamap.chem.polimi.it/- Polytechnic Milan

Inform.  Charles Thomson Rees Wilson 1869-1959-Biography

A,B    Writings on Physics and Philosophy-W. Pauli-1994

A,B    The Theory of Spectra and Atomic Constitution-Bohr-1922

A      Historical overview of the developments of quantum Mechanics Chap.1-Dispense-

B,C   Neutrinos-Autori vari-Universita' de Mexico-

B,C   La Fisica dei Quanti da Planck a Schrodinger -Dispense-F.Dalfovo-Universita' Torino -2016

B,C   Elements of Wave Mechanics-N.F.Mott,M.A.D.Sc.F.R.S.-CavendishUniversity Cambridge-1958

B,C    The Elements of Quantum Mechanics -S.Dushman-1938

A,B    X-Rays and Electrons-Compton-1926

A      Rays Of Positive Electricity and their application to Chemical Analysis-J.J.Thomson-1921

Inform.  First Human Made Reactor and Birth of Nuclear Age-M.Ragheb-2019

A,B   Rise and premature fall of the Old quantum Theory -M.Bucher-2008

B      Heisenberg,Born,Dirac,Schrodinger,KuboWheeler-Feynman-ParteII-A.Carati,L.Galgani

Inform.  Earth Science Notes

B,C    Notebook Lessons held by Fermi in USA CH.1-10

A,B,C Physical Lessons J D Cresser (Chapter 1-15)-2009

A,B,C Notes and Memoirs by E. Fermi Vol 1, 2-Rome-1965

A       Radioactive Substances and Their Radiations-Rutherford-1913

B       Modern Physics-Paul.A.Tipler

A       Modern Physics to University-Serway/Moses/Moyer

A       Modern Physics for Scientists and Engineers-

A       Lectures on Physics-Feynman

A      An Introduction To Quantum Physics-A.P.French/E.F.Taylor

A      Introduction To Quantum Mechanics-A.C.Phillips

A      Concepts of Modern Physics-A.Beiser

A      Atoms, Molecules and Photons-W.Demtroder

The following are published texts:

Inform.     Rain Of Ruin A Photographic History of Hiroshima and Nagasaki-1995

Inform.     Diario di Hiroshima-M.Hachiya-Feltrinelli-1955

Inform.     The invention of the Atomic Bomb-R.Rhodes-Rizzoli-1990

Inform.     Thirty years that shocked the G-Physics. Gamow-Zanichelli- 1965

Inform.      The Road from Los Alamos-H. Bethe-1991

A       The Physics of Berkeley-Quantum Physics-Zanichelli-1968

B,C    Quantum Mechanics -J.Powell,B.Crasemann

B,C    Teoria Elementary Nucleus-H.A.Bethe-Einaudi-1951

B       Elementary Quantum Mechanics-M.Scharff-1968

C      Principles of Quantum Mechanics -Dirac-1958-Ed. Boringhieri

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Timeline of Quantum Mechanics

from Wikipedia

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Nobel Physics Prizes

1901-1952

from Wikipedia

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EVENTS CRONOLOGY 

1896 Discovery of Radioactivity( Becquerel)

1898 Isolation of Radium (M. Curie and P.Curie)

1899 Boer Wars

1900 Planck proposes Quanta Theory;Italian King Umberto I killed by an anarchist

1901 First transatlantic radio transmission (Marconi*);Australia becomes a Dominion

1903 Heavier-than-air flights (Wright brothers)

1905 Special theory of relativity (Einstein*);First Russian revolution repressed; apan defeates Russia at Tsushima

1908 Young Turk revolution; Indian Council Act

1909 α particle shown to be He nucleus(Rutherford*Royds)

1911 Nuclear hypothesis (E. Rutherford*); Sun Yat-Sen overthrows Manchu dynasty in China

1913 Planetary atomic model (N. Bohr*); The two Wars in the Balkans

1914 Nuclear charge determined from X rays (Moseley); Assassination of Austrian Archduke Ferdinand Sarajevo

1915 General theory of relativity (Einstein*); Theory of continental drift (A. Wegener); Italy declares war to Austrian Empire

1917  Unsuccessful Irish uprising in Dublin; Soviet revolution 

1919 Artificial transmutation by nuclear reactions (Rutherford*); Versailles Conference after World War One

1922 March on Rome establishes Mussolini's dictatorship

1926 Quantum mechanics developed (Schrodinger*)

1928 Theory of α radioactivity (Gamow, Gurney,Condon)

1929 Great stock market crash

1930 Neutrino hypothesis (Pauli*);