Thorp and Covich's Freshwater Invertebrates: Volume 5: Keys to Neotropical and Antarctic Fauna

By James H. Thorp

Thorp and Covich's Freshwater Invertebrates, Volume 5: Keys to Neotropical and Antarctic Fauna, Fourth Edition, covers inland water invertebrates of the world. It began with Ecology and General Biology, Volume One (Thorp and Rogers, editors, 2015) and was followed by three volumes emphasizing taxonomic keys to general invertebrates of the Nearctic (2016), neotropical hexapods (2018), and general invertebrates of the Palearctic (2019). All volumes are designed for multiple uses and levels of expertise by professionals in universities, government agencies, private companies, and graduate and undergraduate students.

• Includes zoogeographic coverage of the entire Neotropics, from central Mexico and the Caribbean Islands, to the tip of South America
• Provides identification keys for aquatic invertebrates to genus or species level for many groups, with keys progressing from higher to lower taxonomic levels
• Contains terminology and morphology, materials preparation and preservation, and references

• Language: English
• Publisher: Academic Press
• Release date: Jun 26, 2020
• ISBN: 9780128042663

Book preview

Thorp and Covich's Freshwater Invertebrates

Volume 5: Keys to Neotropical and Antarctic Fauna

Fourth Edition

Editors

D. Christopher Rogers

Kansas Biological Survey and, The Biodiversity Institute, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS, USA

Cristina Damborenea

Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Cientı´ficas y Te´cnicas, Museo de La Plata, Facultad Ciencias Naturales y Museo, Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina

James Thorp

Kansas Biological Survey and Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS, USA

Table of Contents

Cover image

Title page

Thorp and Covich’s Freshwater Invertebrates

Copyright

Dedications from the Editors

Contributors to Volume V

About the Editors

Preface to the Fourth Edition

Preface to Volume V

Acknowledgments for Volume V

Chapter 1. Introduction

Introduction to this Volume and Chapter 1

Nature and Fauna of the Neotropics and Antarctica

Components of Taxonomic Chapters

How to Use This Volume

Key to Kingdoms and Phyla in This Volume

Part I

Chapter 2. Protozoa

Introduction to Free-Living Protozoa

Amoebae

Ciliophora

Flagellated Protozoa

Chapter 3. Phylum Porifera

Introduction

Limitations

Terminology and Morphology

Material Preparation and Preservation

Keys to Porifera

Chapter 4. Phylum Cnidaria

Introduction

Limitations

Terminology and Morphology

Preparation and Preservation

Keys to Cnidaria

Chapter 5. Phylum Platyhelminthes

Introduction

Limitations

Terminology and Morphology

Material Preparation and Preservation

Keys to Platyhelminthes

Chapter 6. Phylum Nemertea

Introduction

Limitations

Terminology and Morphology

Material Preparation and Preservation

Keys to Nemertea

Chapter 7. Phylum Gastrotricha

Introduction

Limitations

Terminology and Morphology

Material Preparation and Preservation

Keys to Gastrotricha

Chapter 8. Phylum Rotifera

Introduction

Limitations

Terminology and Morphology

Material Preparation and Preservation

Key to Rotifera

Chapter 9. Phylum Nematoda

Introduction

Limitations

Terminology and Morphology

Material Preparation and Preservation

Key to Freshwater and Terrestrial Nematoda

Chapter 10. Phylum Nematomorpha

Introduction

Limitations

Terminology and Morphology

Material Preparation and Preservation

Keys to Gordiida

Chapter 11. Phylum Mollusca

Introduction to the Phylum

Class Gastropoda

Subclass Heterobranchia

Succineoidea, Succineidae

Glacidorboidea, Glacidorbidae

Lymnaeoidea, Lymnaeidae

Lymneoidea, Physidae

Chilinoidea, Chilinidae

Planorbioidea, Planorbidae, Ancylinae

Planorbioidea, Planorbidae, Planorbinae

Subclass Neritimorpha

Subclass Caenogastropoda

Ampullarioidea: Ampullariidae

Truncatelloidea

Cerithioidea

Class Bivalvia

Key to Bivalvia, Myida

Key to Bivalvia, Venerida

Key to Unionida

Chapter 12. Phylum Annelida

Introduction to the Phylum

Class Clitellata: Subclass Oligochaeta

Class Clitellata: Subclass Branchiobdellidea

Class Clitellata: Subclass Hirudinida

Class Aphanoneura

Class Polychaeta

Chapter 13. Phylum Ectoprocta (Bryozoa)

Introduction

Limitations

Terminology and Morphology

Material Preparation and Preservation

Keys to Ectoprocta (Bryozoa)

Chapter 14. Phylum Entoprocta

Introduction

Terminology and Morphology

Material Preparation and Preservation

Chapter 15. Phylum Tardigrada

Introduction

Limitations

Terminology and Morphology

Material Preparation and Preservation

Keys to Tardigrada

Part II

Chapter 16. Phylum Arthropoda: Introduction and Arachnida

Introduction to Arthropoda

Arachnida (Introduction)

Acari: Oribatida

Acari: Halacaroidea

Arachnida: Araneae

Chapter 17. Arthropoda: Introduction to Crustacea and the Class Hexapoda

Introduction to Crustacea

Class Hexapoda

Chapter 18. Class Cirripedia

Introduction

Limitations

Terminology and Morphology

Material Preparation and Preservation

Keys to Cirripedia

Chapter 19. Class Branchiopoda

Introduction

Limitations

Terminology and Morphology

Material Preparation and Preservation

Keys to Branchiopoda

Chapter 20. Class Ostracoda

Introduction

Limitations

Terminology and Morphology

Material Preparation and Preservation

Keys to Ostracoda

Chapter 21. Class Copepoda

Introduction to Copepoda

Order Calanoida

Calanoida: Centropagidae

Order Harpacticoida

Order Cyclopoida

Cyclopidae: Eucyclopinae

Order Poecilostomatoida: Family Ergasilidae

Chapter 22. Class Branchiura

Introduction

Limitations

Terminology and Morphology

Material Preparation and Preservation

Keys to Argulidae

Chapter 23. Phylum Arthropoda: Crustacea: Malacostraca

Introduction to Malacostraca

Anaspidacea

Bathynellacea

Amphipoda

Tanaidacea

Isopoda

Decapoda

Decapoda: Astacidea

Decapoda: Dendrobranchiata

Decapoda: Caridea

Decapoda: Anomura: Aeglidae

Decapoda: Brachyura

Mysida

Stygiomysida

Taxonomic Index

Thorp and Covich’s Freshwater Invertebrates

A Global Series of Books on the Identification, Ecology, and General Biology of Inland Water Invertebrates by Experts from Around the World

Fourth Edition

Series Editor: James H. Thorp

Volume I: Ecology and General Biology

Edited by James H. Thorp and D. Christopher Rogers

Published 2015

Volume II: Keys to Nearctic Fauna

Edited by James H. Thorp and D. Christopher Rogers

Published 2016

Volume III: Keys to Neotropical Hexapoda

Edited by Neusa Hamada, James H. Thorp, and D. Christopher Rogers

Published 2018

Volume IV: Keys to Palaearctic Fauna

Edited by D. Christopher Rogers and James H. Thorp

Published 2019

Volume V: Keys to Neotropical and Antarctic Fauna

Edited by Cristina Damborenea, D. Christopher Rogers and James H. Thorp

Published 2020

Volumes in Development

Keys to Australasian Fauna

Keys to Afrotropical Fauna

Planned Future Volumes

Keys to Oriental and Oceanian Fauna

Keys to Oriental and Oceanian Hexapoda

Keys to Nearctic Hexapoda

Keys to Palaearctic Hexapoda

Related Publications

Field Guide to Freshwater Invertebrates of North America

James H. Thorp and D. Christopher Rogers

First Edition (2011)

Copyright

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Notices

Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary.

Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

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British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

ISBN: 978-0-12-804225-0

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Publisher: Candice Janco

Acquisitions Editor: Louisa Munro

Editorial Project Manager: Emily Thomson

Production Project Manager: Paul Prasad Chandramohan

Cover Designer: Greg Harris

Typeset by TNQ Technologies

Dedications from the Editors

To Laura, Cecilia, and Santiago, my wonderful children, and to Raul for their comprehension.

María Cristina Damborenea

To our authors who made this book possible.

D. Christopher Rogers

To our wonderful children, Sara and Zachary, for loving the natural world and understanding their father's obsession with it.

James H. Thorp

Contributors to Volume V

Roberto G. Alves email address: [e-mail] [Chapter 12: Phylum Annelida],     Departamento Zoologia, Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora, Juiz de Fora, MG, Brazil

Monica Ammon Fernandez email address: [e-mail] [Chapter 11: Phylum Mollusca],     Laboratório de Malacologia / Laboratório de Referência Nacional para Esquistossomose - Malacologia, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

Sonia Barbosa dos Santos email address: [e-mail] [Chapter 11: Phylum Mollusca],     Laboratório de Malacologia Límnica e Terrestre, Departamento de Zoologia, Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro (UERJ), Brazil

Gary M. Barker email address: [e-mail] [Chapter 11: Phylum Mollusca],     Landcare Research, Lincoln, Canterbury, New Zealand

Maria Isabel Berning email address: [e-mail] [Chapter 11: Phylum Mollusca],     Bavarian State Collection of Zoology (ZSM), Section Mollusca, Münich, Germany

Felipe Bezerra Ribeiro email address: [e-mail] [Chapter 23: Class Malacostraca],     Departamento de Zoologia (Laboratório de Carcinologia), Instituto de Biociências, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil

Matthew G. Bolek email address: [e-mail] [Chapter 10: Phylum Nematomorpha],     Department of Integrative Biology, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma, USA

Georgina Bond-Buckup email address: [e-mail] [Chapter 23: Class Malacostraca],     Independent Researcher, retired from the Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil

Francisco Brusa email address: [e-mail] [Chapter 5: Phylum Platyhelminthes],     División Zoología Invertebrados, Museo de La Plata, FCNyM, UNLP / CONICET, Argentina

Alessandra Bueno email address: [e-mail] [Chapter 23: Class Malacostraca],     Departamento de Biologia, Universidade Federal de Lavras, Brazil

Luciana Burdman email address: [e-mail] [Chapter 2: Protozoa],     Institute of Environmental Research and Engineering, University of San Martin, CONICET, Buenos Aires, Argentina

Ludimila Calheira email address: [e-mail] [Chapter 3: Phylum Porifera],     Departamento de Zoologia, Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Recife, Brazil

Ana Isabel Camacho email address: [e-mail] [Chapter 23: Class Malacostraca],     Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales (CSIC), Departamento de Biodiversidad y Biología Evolutiva, Madrid, Spain

Aline Carvalho de Mattos email address: [e-mail] [Chapter 11: Phylum Mollusca],     Laboratório de Malacologia, / Laboratório de Referência Nacional para Esquistossomose - Malacologia, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

Silvana Carvalho Thiengo email address: [e-mail] [Chapter 11: Phylum Mollusca],     Laboratório de Malacologia / Laboratório de Referência Nacional para Esquistossomose - Malacologia, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

María Cristina Claps email address: [e-mail] [Chapter 2: Protozoa],     Instituto de Limnología Dr. R. A. Ringuelet, La Plata, Buenos Aires, Argentina

Rosa Graciela Cohen email address: [e-mail] [Chapter 19: Class Branchiopoda],     Departamento de Biodiversidad y Biología Experimental, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Argentina

Gonzalo A. Collado email address: [e-mail] [Chapter 11: Phylum Mollusca],     Facultad de Ciencias, Departamento de Ciencias Básicas, Universidad del Bío-Bío, Chillán, Chile

Yanis Cruz-Quintana email address: [e-mail] [Chapter 21: Class Copepoda],     Escuela de Acuicultura y Pesquería, Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias, Universidad Técnica de Manabí, Ecuador

Maria Gabriela Cuezzo email address: [e-mail] [Chapter 11: Phylum Mollusca],     Instituto de Biodiversidad Neotropical (CONICET-UNT), Universidad Nacional de Tucumán, Tucumán, Argentina

Cristina Damborenea email address: [e-mail] [Chapter 1: Introduction, Chapter 2: Protozoa, Chapter 5: Phylum Platyhelminthes, Chapter 11: Phylum Mollusca, Chapter 12: Phylum Annelida],     División Zoología Invertebrados, Museo de La Plata, FCNyM, UNLP / CONICET, Argentina

Paul De Ley email address: [e-mail] [Chapter 9: Phylum Nematoda],     Department of Nematology, University of California Riverside, Riverside, CA, USA

Cristina de Villalobos email address: [e-mail] [Chapter 10: Phylum Nematomorpha],     Museo de Ciencias Naturales, FCNyM, UNLP, Argentina

María Irene Deserti email address: [e-mail] [Chapter 4: Phylum Cnidaria],     Instituto de Investigaciones Marinas y Costeras, Universidad Nacional de Mar del Plata - CONICET, Mar del Plata, Buenos Aires, Argentina

Edinaldo Nelson dos Santos-Silva email address: [e-mail] [Chapter 21: Class Copepoda],     Instituto de Pesquisas da Amazônia, Manaus, AM, Brazil

Marcelo E. Doucet email address: [e-mail] [Chapter 9: Phylum Nematoda],     Instituto de Diversidad y Ecología Animal (CONICET-UNC) and Centro de Zoología Aplicada, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Córdoba, Argentina

Maria Cristina Dreher Mansur email address: [e-mail] [Chapter 11: Phylum Mollusca],     Grupo de Pesquisa do CNPq, Biodiversidade de Moluscos Continentais, Museu de Ciências Naturais, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil

Elizangela Feitosa da Silva email address: [e-mail] [Chapter 11: Phylum Mollusca],     Laboratório de Referência Nacional para Esquistossomose, Malacologia, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

Leonardo Fernández email address: [e-mail] [Chapter 2: Protozoa],     CIRENYS, Universidad Bernardo O'Higgins, Santiago, Chile

Nelson Ferretti email address: [e-mail] [Chapter 16: Phylum Arthropoda: Introduction and Arachnida],     Instituto de Ciencias Biológicas y Biomédicas del Sur (INBIO-SUR-CONICET-UNS), Bahıa Blanca, Buenos Aires, Argentina

Diego Fontaneto email address: [e-mail] [Chapter 8: Phylum Rotifera],     Water Research Institute (IRSA), National Research Council (CNR), Verbania Pallanza, Italy

Natalia A. Fredes email address: [e-mail] [Chapter 16: Phylum Arthropoda: Introduction and Arachnida],     Departamento de Biología, Universidad Nacional de Mar del Plata, Argentina

Stuart R. Gelder email address: [e-mail] [Chapter 12: Phylum Annelida],     Department of Science and Math, University of Maine at Presque Isle, Presque Isle, Maine 04769, USA

João Gil email address: [e-mail] [Chapter 11: Phylum Annelida],     Centre d’Estudis Avançats de Blanes, CEAB-CSIC, Blanes, Catalunya, Spain

Christopher J. Glasby email address: [e-mail] [Chapter 12: Phylum Annelida],     Museum & Art Gallery of the Northern Territory, Darwin, Australia

Samuel Gómez email address: [e-mail] [Chapter 21: Class Copepoda],     Instituto de Ciencias del Mar y Limnología, UNAM. Unidad Académica Mazatlán, Mazatlán, Mexico

Exequiel R. González email address: [e-mail] [Chapter 23: Class Malacostraca],     Universidad Santo Tomás, Santiago, Chile

Priscila A. Grohmann email address: [e-mail] [Chapter 4: Phylum Cnidaria],     Instituto de Biologia, Departamento de Zoologia, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

Jürgen Guerrero-Kommritz email address: [e-mail] [Chapter 23: Class Malacostraca],     Development of Applied Biology, Fundabas Foundation, Bogotá, Colombia

Roberto Guidetti email address: [e-mail] [Chapter 15: Phylum Tardigrada],     Department of Life Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Modena, Italy

Martha A. Gutiérrez-Aguirre email address: [e-mail] [Chapter 21: Class Copepoda],     Universidad de Quintana Roo, Cozumel, Mexico

Diego Eduardo Gutiérrez Grégoric email address: [e-mail] [Chapter 11: Phylum Mollusca],     División Zoología Invertebrados, Museo de La Plata, FCNyM, UNLP / CONICET, Argentina

Neusa Hamada email address: [e-mail] [Chapter. 17: Phylum Arthropoda: Introduction to Crustacea and Hexapoda],     Coordenação de Biodiversidade, Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazônia-INPA, Manaus, AM, Brazil

Ben Hanelt email address: [e-mail] [Chapter 10: Phylum Nematomorpha],     Department of Biology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, USA

Brenda J. Hann email address: [e-mail] [Chapter 19: Branchiopoda],     Department of Biological Sciences, University of Manitoba, Canada

Janet Higuti email address: [e-mail] [Chapter 20: Ostracoda],     State University of Maringá, Centre for Research on Limnology, Ichthyology and Aquaculture, Graduate Programme in Ecology of Inland Water Ecosystems, Maringá, Paraná, Brazil

Cristián Ituarte email address: [e-mail] [Chapter 11: Phylum Mollusca],     División Zoología Invertebrados, Museo Argentino de Ciencias Naturales, Buenos Aires, Argentina

Carlos G. Jara email address: [e-mail] [Chapter 23: Class Malacostraca],     Instituto de Ciencias Marinas y Limnológicas, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile

Susana B. José de Paggi email address: [e-mail] [Chapter 8: Phylum Rotifera],     Instituto de Limnologia, Santa Fe, Argentina

Łukasz Kaczmarek email address: [e-mail] [Chapter 15: Phylum Tardigrada],     Department of Animal Taxonomy and Ecology, Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań, Poznań, Poland

Anush Kosakyan email address: [e-mail] [Chapter 2: Protozoa]

Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre of the Czech Academy of Sciences, České Budějovice

Czech Republic / Institute of Biosciences, Department of Zoology, University of Sao Paulo, Brazil

Valentyna Krashevska email address: [e-mail] [Chapter 2: Protozoa],     J.F. Blumenbach Institute of Zoology and Anthropology, Georg August University Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany

Gabriela C. Küppers email address: [e-mail] [Chapter 2: Protozoa],     División Invertebrados, Museo Argentino de Ciencias Naturales Bernardino Rivadavia, Buenos Aires, Argentina

Enrique M. Lara email address: [e-mail] [Chapter 2: Protozoa],     Laboratory of Soil Biodiversity, University of Neuchâtel, Neuchâtel, Switzerland / Real Jardín Botánico de Madrid, CSIC, Spain

Paola Lax email address: [e-mail] [Chapter 9: Phylum Nematoda],     Instituto de Diversidad y Ecología Animal (CONICET-UNC) and Centro de Zoología Aplicada, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, 5000 Córdoba, Argentina

Ana Maria Leal-Zanchet email address: [e-mail] [Chapter 5: Phylum Platyhelminthes],     Instituto de Pesquisas de Planárias and Programa de Pós-Graduação em Biologia, Universidade do Vale do Rio dos Sinos, UNISINOS, São Leopoldo, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil

Luiz Eduardo Macedo de Lacerda email address: [e-mail] [Chapter 11: Phylum Mollusca],     Laboratório de Malacologia Límnica e Terrestre, Departamento de Zoologia, Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro (UERJ), Brazil

Célio Magalhães email address: [e-mail] [Chapter 23: Class Malacostraca],     Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazônia, Manaus, AM, Brazil

Daniel Mansur Pimpão email address: [e-mail] [Chapter 11: Phylum Mollusca],     Instituto Brasileiro do Meio Ambiente e dos Recursos Naturais Renováveis (IBAMA), GO, Brazil

Fernando L. Mantelatto email address: [e-mail] [Chapter 23: Class Malacostraca],     Laboratório de Bioecologia e Sistemática de Crustáceos (LBSC), Departamento of Biologia, Faculdade de Filosofia, Ciências e Letras de Ribeirão Preto (FFCLRP), Universidade de São Paulo (USP), Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil

Mercedes R. Marchese email address: [e-mail] [Chapter 12: Phylum Annelida],     Instituto Nacional de Limnología (CONICET-UNL), Santa Fe, Argentina

María Cristina Marinone email address: [e-mail] [Chapter 8: Phylum Rotifera],     Departamento de Biodiversidad y Biología Experimental, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Argentina

Taisa M. Marques email address: [e-mail] [Chapter 21: Class Copepoda],     Laboratório de Ecologia Molecular e Parasitologia Evolutiva, Universidade Federal do, Paraná, Curitiba, Paraná, Brazil

Koen Martens email address: [e-mail] [Chapter 20: Class Ostracoda]

Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences (RBINS), Brussels, Belgium

Department of Biology, University of Ghent, Gent, Belgium

Daniel Martin email address: [e-mail] [Chapter 11: Phylum Annelida],     Centre d’Estudis Avançats de Blanes, CEAB-CSIC, Catalunya, Spain

Pablo A. Martínez email address: [e-mail] [Chapter 16: Phylum Arthropoda: Introduction and Arachnida],     Departamento de Biología, Universidad Nacional de Mar del Plata, Argentina

Sandra McInnes email address: [e-mail] [Chapter 15: Phylum Tardigrada],     British Antarctic Survey, Natural Environment Research Council, Cambridge, UK

Nancy F. Mercado-Salas email address: [e-mail] [Chapter 21: Class Copepoda],     Centrum für Naturkunde, CeNak/Center of Natural History Hamburg, Universität Hamburg, Zoological Museum, Hamburg, Germany; Martin-Luther-King-Platz 3, 20146 Hamburg, Germany

Igor Christo Miyahira email address: [e-mail] [Chapter 11: Phylum Mollusca],     Universidade Estadual do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

Diane R. Nelson email address: [e-mail] [Chapter 15: Phylum Tardigrada],     Department of Biological Sciences, East Tennessee State University, USA

Carolina Noreña email address: [e-mail] [Chapter 5: Phylum Platyhelminthes],     Departamento Biodiversidad y Biología Evolutiva, Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales (CSIC), Madrid, Spain

Thiago Nunes Antoniazzi email address: [e-mail] [Chapter 11: Phylum Mollusca],     Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil

Alejandro Oceguera-Figueroa email address: [e-mail] [Chapter 12: Phylum Annelida],     Laboratorio de Helmintología, Instituto de Biología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México

Janine Oliveira Arruda email address: [e-mail] [Chapter 11: Phylum Mollusca],     Grupo de Pesquisa do CNPq, Biodiversidade de Moluscos Continentais, Museu de Ciências Naturais, Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil

Maria Cristina Orellana Liebbe email address: [e-mail] [Chapter 13: Phylum Ectoprocta (Bryozoa)],     Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Católica de la Santísima Concepción, Concepción, Chile

Ximena Maria Constanza Ovando email address: [e-mail] [Chapter 11: Phylum Mollusca],     Laboratório de Malacologia Límnica e Terrestre, Departamento de Zoologia, Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro (UERJ), Brazil

Manuel Pedraza email address: [e-mail] [Chapter 23: Class Malacostraca],     Programa de Pós-Graduação em Sistemática, Taxonomia Animal e Biodiversidade, Museu de Zoologia da Universidade de São Paulo, Brazil

Carlos Pedraza-Lara email address: [e-mail] [Chapter 23 Class Malacostraca],     Licenciatura en Ciencia Forense, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad Universitaria, Distrito Federal, Mexico

Almir Rogério Pepato email address: [e-mail] [Chapter 16: Phylum Arthropoda: Introduction and Arachnida],     Departamento de Zoologia, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil

Marcela Peralta email address: [e-mail] [Chapter 23: Class Malacostraca],     Instituto de Invertebrados, Fundación Miguel Lillo, San Miguel de Tucumán, Argentina

Gilmar Perbiche-Neves email address: [e-mail] [Chapter 21: Class Copepoda],     Departamento de Hidrobiologia, Universidade Federal de São Carlos, SP, Brazil

Ulisses Pinheiro email address: [e-mail] [Chapter 3: Phylum Porifera],     Departmento de Zoologia Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Recife, Brazil

Fabio Bettini Pitombo email address: [e-mail] [Chapter 18: Class Cirripedia],     Departamento de Biologia Marinha, Universidade Federal Fluminense, Niterói, RJ, Brazil

Jean-Pierre Pointier email address: [e-mail] [Chapter 11: Phylum Mollusca],     Laboratoire Ecosystèmes Aquatiques Tropicaux et Méditerranéens, Université de Perpignan, France

Gabriel Pompozzi email address: [e-mail] [Chapter 16: Phylum Arthropoda: Introduction and Arachnida],     Sección Entomología, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de la República, Montevideo, Uruguay

Daniel Previattelli email address: [e-mail] [Chapter 21: Class Copepoda],     Departamento de Zoologia, Instituto de Biociências, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil

W. Wayne Price email address: [e-mail] [Chapter 23: Class Malacostraca],     Department of Biology, University of Tampa, Tampa, Florida, USA

Thiago Quintão Araújo email address: [e-mail] [Chapter 7: Phylum Gastrotricha],     Laboratório de Evolução de Organismos Meiofaunais, Departamento de Biologia Animal, Instituto de Biologia, Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil

Lorena Rebecchi email address: [e-mail] [Chapter 15: Phylum Tardigrada],     Department of Life Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Italy

Carlos E.F. da Rocha email address: [e-mail] [Chapter 21: Class Copepoda],     Departamento de Zoologia, Instituto de Biociências, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil

D. Christopher Rogers email address: [e-mail] [Chapter 1: Introduction, Chapter 16: Phylum Arthropoda: Introduction and Arachnida, Chapter 17: Phylum Arthropoda: Introduction to Crustacea and Hexapoda, Chapter 19: Class Branchiopoda, Chapter 23: Class Malacostraca],     Kansas Biological Survey and, The Biodiversity Institute, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS, USA

Erich Harry Rudolph Latorre email address: [e-mail] [Chapter 23: Class Malacostraca],     Departamento de Ciencias Biológicas y Biodiversidad, Universidad de Los Lagos, Osorno, Chile

Ana María Santana-Piñeros email address: [e-mail] [Chapter 21 Class Copepoda],     Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias, Universidad Técnica de Manabí, Ecuador

Sandro Santos email address: [e-mail] [Chapter 23: Class Malacostraca],     Departamento de Ecologia e Evolução, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria, Santa Maria, RS, Brazil

Andreas Schmidt-Rhaesa email address: [e-mail] [Chapter 10: Phylum Nematomorpha],     Zoological Museum, University Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany

André Rinaldo Senna Garraffoni email address: [e-mail] [Chapter 7: Phylum Gastrotricha],     Laboratório de Evolução de Organismos Meiofaunais, Departamento de Biologia Animal, Instituto de Biologia, Universidade Estadual de Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil

Ferry Siemensma email address: [e-mail] [Chapter 2: Protozoa],     Julianaweg 10, 1241VW Kortenhoef, The Netherlands

Pedro Henrique da Silva Conceição email address: [e-mail] [Chapter 16: Phylum Arthropoda: Introduction and Arachnida],     Departamento de Zoologia, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil

Thiago da Silva Paiva email address: [e-mail] [Chapter 2: Protozoa],     Laboratório de Protistologia, Departamento de Zoologia, Instituto de Biologia, CCS, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil

Sérgio N. Stampar email address: [e-mail] [Chapter 4: Phylum Cnidaria],     Departamento de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP), FCL / Campus de Assis, São Paulo, Brazil

Malin Strand email address: [e-mail] [Chapter 6: Phylum Nemertea],     Swedish Species Information Centre, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden

Eduardo Suárez-Morales email address: [e-mail] [Chapter 21: Class Copepoda, Chapter 22: Class Branchiura],     El Colegio de la Frontera Sur, Chetumal, Mexico

Per Sundberg email address: [e-mail] [Chapter 6: Phylum Nemertea],     Department of Marine Sciences, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden

James H. Thorp email address: [e-mail] [Chapter 1: Introduction; Chapter 17: Phylum Arthropoda: Introduction to Crustacea and Hexapoda],     Kansas Biological Survey and Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Kansas, USA

Tarmo Timm email address: [e-mail] [Chapter 12: Phylum Annelida],     Estonian University of Life Sciences, Centre for Limnology, Tartumaa, Estonia

Antonio Alejandro Vázquez email address: [e-mail] [Chapter 11: Phylum Mollusca],     Laboratory of Malacology, Institute of Tropical Medicine Pedro Kourí, Havana, Cuba

Robert Wallace email address: [e-mail] [Chapter 8: Phylum Rotifera],     Department of Biology, Ripon College, Ripon, WI, USA

Timothy S. Wood email address: [e-mail] [Chapter 13: Phylum Bryozoa, Chapter 14: Phylum Entoprocta],     Department of Biological Sciences, Wright State University, Dayton, Ohio, USA

Fernanda Zanca email address: [e-mail] [Chapter 10: Phylum Nematomorpha],     Centro de Estudios Parasitológicos y de Vectores (CEPAVE, CONICET-UNLP), La Plata, Argentina

About the Editors

Dr. M. Cristina Damborenea is a research zoologist at the Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Cientificas & Técnicas (Argentina), Curator of Invertebrate Collections of Museo de La Plata (Argentina), and Professor of Invertebrate Zoology at Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Museo, La Plata University (Argentina). She not only specializes in free living Platyhelminthes but also studies other noninsect groups of aquatic invertebrates as well as aquatic invasive species in South America. Cristina Damborenea created and leads a research group in free living Platyhelminthes of the Neotropical region. She has numerous peer-reviewed publications focused on the taxonomy and ecology of invertebrates, invasive mollusks, scientific field guides, and studies of the dissemination of scientific knowledge.

Dr. D. Christopher Rogers is a research zoologist at the University of Kansas with the Kansas Biological Survey and is affiliated with the Biodiversity Institute, with numerous research projects all over the world. He received his PhD degree from the University of New England in Armidale, NSW, Australia. Christopher specializes in freshwater and terrestrial crustaceans (particularly Branchiopoda and Malacostraca) and the invertebrate fauna of seasonally astatic wetlands on a global scale. He has more than 150 peer-reviewed publications in crustacean taxonomy and invertebrate ecology, as well as published popular and scientific field guides and identification manuals to freshwater invertebrates. Christopher is an Associate Editor for the Journal of Crustacean Biology and a founding member of the Southwest Association of Freshwater Invertebrate Taxonomists. He has been involved in aquatic invertebrate conservation efforts all over the world.

Dr. James H. Thorp has been a Professor in the Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology at the University of Kansas (Lawrence, KS, USA) and a Senior Scientist in the Kansas Biological Survey since 2001. Prior to returning to his alma mater, Professor Thorp was a Distinguished Professor and Dean at Clarkson University, Department Chair and Professor at the University of Louisville, Associate Professor and Director of the Calder Ecology Center of Fordham University, Visiting Associate Professor at Cornell, and Research Ecologist at the University of Georgia's Savannah River Ecology Laboratory. He received his Baccalaureate from the University of Kansas (KU) and both Masters and PhD degrees from North Carolina State. Those degrees focused on zoology, ecology, and marine biology, with an emphasis on the ecology of freshwater and marine invertebrates. Dr. Thorp has been on the editorial board of three freshwater journals and is a former President of the International Society for River Science. He teaches freshwater, marine, and invertebrate courses at KU, and his Master and Doctoral graduate students work on various aspects of the ecology of communities through macrosystems in rivers, reservoirs, and wetlands. Professor Thorp's research interests and background are highly diverse and span the gamut from organismal biology to community, ecosystem, and macrosystem ecology. He works on both fundamental and applied research topics using descriptive, experimental, and modeling approaches in the field and lab. While his research emphasizes aquatic invertebrates, he also studies fish ecology, especially as related to food webs. He has published more than 130 refereed journal articles, books, and chapters, including three single-volume editions of Ecology and Classification of North American Freshwater Invertebrates (edited by J.H. Thorp and A.P. Covich) and five volumes in the current fourth edition of Thorp and Covich's Freshwater Invertebrates.

Preface to the Fourth Edition

Those readers familiar with the first three editions of our invertebrate book (Ecology and Classification of North American Freshwater Invertebrates, edited by J.H. Thorp and A.P. Covich) will note that the fourth edition has expanded from a North American focus to worldwide coverage of inland water invertebrates. We gave our book series on inland water invertebrates the name Thorp and Covich's Freshwater Invertebrates to: (a) associate present with past editions, unite current volumes, and link to future editions; (b) establish a connection between the ecological and general biology coverage in Volume I with the taxonomic keys in the remaining volumes; and (c) give credit to Professor Alan Covich for his work on the first three editions. For the sake of brevity, we refer to the current edition as T&C V. Whether the fifth edition of T&C will ever appear is certainly problematic, but who knows? At present, we are considering producing up to 11 volumes in the fourth edition.

While I am the sole series editor at this point, Christopher has been a major and highly valued partner in developing ideas for the fourth edition and has been a coeditor on all five volumes now in print (senior editor on Volume IV). He will also likely play a major role in many of the remaining volumes because of his diverse and global knowledge of freshwater invertebrates, especially in the area of taxonomy. In the next decade, we hope to publish 4–6 more volumes, with an Australasian volume likely to appear in 2021. We are still seeking experts in fields of invertebrate taxonomy for various zoogeographic regions to serve as highly dependable coeditors, especially those who both work and live in the zoogeographic regions covered by the various future volumes.

Our concept for T&C IV included producing one book (Volume I, published in 2015) with six chapters on general environmental issues applicable to many invertebrates, followed by 35 chapters devoted to individual taxa at various levels (order to phylum, or even multiple phyla in the case of the protozoa). Volume I was designed both as an independent book on ecology and general biology of the various freshwater invertebrate taxa and as a companion volume for users of the keys in the regional taxonomic volumes, thereby reducing the amount of information duplicated in the taxonomic volumes. All taxonomic volumes to be published over the next decade will contain both keys for identifying invertebrates in specific zoogeographic regions and descriptions of detailed anatomical features needed to employ those keys.

While the vast majority of authors in volumes of T&C editions I–III were from the United States or Canada, we attempted in T&C IV to attract authors from many additional countries in other continents. Although we largely succeeded in this goal, we expect the fifth edition of T&C—if it is ever published—to continue increasing the proportion of authors from outside North America as our books become better known internationally.

Our goals for T&C IV are to improve the state of taxonomic and ecological knowledge of inland water invertebrates, to help protect our aquatic biodiversity, and to encourage more students to devote their careers to working with these fascinating organisms. These goals are especially important because the verified and probable future losses of species in wetlands, ponds, lakes, creeks, and rivers around the globe exceed those in most terrestrial habitats.

James H. Thorp

Preface to Volume V

This is the fifth volume of the fourth edition of Thorp and Covich's Freshwater Invertebrates (T&C IV). Information on the ecology and general biology of the groups can be found in Volume I (Ecology and General Biology, edited by Thorp and Rogers, 2015), the companion text for the current and all remaining books in this series. All taxonomic volumes (other than those focused exclusively on Hexapoda) are expected to consist of an introductory chapter, a chapter on protozoa (multiple kingdoms), and multiple chapters on individual phyla from Cnidaria to Arthropoda. Some of the chapters are very small (e.g., Chapter 14 on Entoprocta), whereas others are very large (especially Chapter 23 on Malacostraca).

A typical chapter includes a short introduction, a brief discussion of limits to identification of taxa in that chapter, important information on terminology and morphology that is needed to use the keys, techniques for preparing and preserving material for identification (also covered in Volume I), the taxonomic keys, and a few references. In large chapters, such as those on Mollusca (11), Annelida (12), and Arthropoda (16–23), different individuals have contributed separate sections, and thus there are multiple sections on introduction through keys and references. While this may confuse some readers, it has allowed us to gain contributions from an increased number of experts around the world.

The multilevel keys are formatted to enable users to work easily at the level of their taxonomic expertise and the needs of their project. For that reason, we separated keys by major taxonomic divisions. For example, a student in a college course might work through one or more of the initial crustacean keys to determine the family in which a freshwater shrimp belongs. In contrast, someone working on an environmental monitoring project might need to identify a snail or crab to genus or even species, and thus would use the relevant, detailed keys that require more background experience.

We have asked authors to include only taxa that are recognized internationally by publication in reputable scientific journals that follow the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature. Thus, no taxa that have merely been proposed should have been included even if they have been identified by the world's expert on that group. Common species are not designated in the keys themselves because a common species in one area may not be common in another, and this designation can lead to overly frequent and false identifications. Authors have been encouraged to end the keys at the point where further identification without genetic analysis is not practical or when it is clear that too many of the extant fauna have yet to be described in scientific publications.

Users of these keys need to realize that taxonomy is a growing and vibrant field in which new taxa are being described and previously accepted relationships reevaluated. For some users, this volume may be sufficient for their needs, but for others, a companion text listing known species in a smaller geographic region may also be helpful.

This edition is strongly focused on species found in fresh through saline inland waters, with a nonexclusive emphasis on surface waters, thereby reflecting the bias of existing scientific literature. Again, most estuarine and parasitic species are not covered in this book, but we do discuss species whose life cycle includes a free-living stage (e.g., Nematomorpha) and species that live in hard freshwaters through to brackish waters even though they may be normally associated with estuarine or marine habitats in some parts of their life cycles (e.g., some shrimp and crabs).

It is our hope that scientists and students from around the world will benefit from this volume, especially those studying organisms in the Neotropics. Suggestions for improving future volumes are welcome.

Editors

M. Cristina Damborenea

D. Christopher Rogers

James H. Thorp

Acknowledgments for Volume V

Many people contributed to this volume in addition to the chapter authors and those acknowledged in individual chapters. We greatly appreciate all our colleagues who have contributed information, figures, or reviews to Volume V and also thank those who provided similar services for the earlier editions, upon which the present book partially relies. We are again grateful to the highly competent people at Academic Press/Elsevier who helped in many aspects of the book's production from the original concept to the final marketing. In particular, we appreciate our association with Elsevier editors including Emily Thomson and Louisa Hutchins and earlier Laura Kelleher, as well as the entire global production teams for Elsevier, especially those led by Paul Prasad Chandramohan.

Cristina Damborenea

D. Christopher Rogers

James H. Thorp

Chapter 1: Introduction ¹

James H. Thorp     Kansas Biological Survey, Lawrence, KS, United States Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS, United States

D. Christopher Rogers Kansas Biological Survey, Lawrence, KS, United States The Biodiversity Institute, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS, United States

Cristina Damborenea División Zoología Invertebrados, Museo de La Plata, FCNyM-UNLP, Buenos Aires, Argentina CONICET

Abstract

This brief chapter serves as an introduction to Volume V: Keys to Neotropical and Antarctic Fauna. Discussions include the geographic region covered in this volume, guides for using the chapters, and the nature of taxonomic keys and how to use them correctly. A short key is provided to lead the reader to the appropriate chapter in this book.

Keywords

Antarctic fauna; Freshwater invertebrates; Key to kingdoms and phyla; Neotropical fauna; Techniques for identifying taxa

Introduction to this Volume and Chapter 1

Nature and Fauna of the Neotropics and Antarctica

Fauna of Antarctica and Nearby Islands

Components of Taxonomic Chapters

How to Use This Volume

Key to Kingdoms and Phyla in This Volume

References

Introduction to this Volume and Chapter 1

The first volume of Thorp and Covich's Freshwater Invertebrates (Thorp & Rogers, 2015) provided global coverage of the ecology, general biology, phylogeny, and collection techniques for inland water invertebrates. The focus of all volumes in our series after Volume I has been or will be on taxonomic keys for individual bioregions of the world. The taxonomic keys provide users with means to work at their level of need and expertise. Our authors have tried to limit the specificity of the keys to those taxa where comprehensive knowledge is available for most taxa in a particular group or where identification is only possible for certain life stages. It is our hope that these books demonstrate the limits of our knowledge on the biodiversity for different regions and taxa, and thus will inspire future studies in those areas.

In addition to the first five volumes currently in print (Thorp & Rogers, 2015, 2016; Hamada et al., 2018; Rogers & Thorp, 2019, and the current volume), a sixth volume should appear in 2021 (Keys to Australasian Fauna; Ahyong et al., 2021) and work has recently commenced on a seventh volume (Keys to Afrotropical Fauna; Day et al., 2024?). The general invertebrates and the Hexapoda of the Oriental/Oceana bioregions are expected to be covered in two future volumes, along with more detailed coverage of Hexapoda in the Nearctic and Palaearctic bioregions.

The Neotropical region as defined in this volume may have faunal overlap with the Nearctic fauna in the Baja Peninsula at the Tropic of Cancer, in the Mexican Lowlands, and through the southern Florida Peninsula. For specimens collected adjacent to these regions that do not closely correspond with the keys presented herein, please consult Volume II of this book series. Note also that the current volume treats insects only to order because greater detail appeared in Vol. III: Keys to Neotropical Hexapoda (Hamada et al., 2018).

We consider this series of 10–12 volumes to be a globally expanded fourth edition of the earlier Ecology and Classification of North American Freshwater Invertebrates (edited by Thorp & Covich in 1991, 2001, and 2010). While some labs may have multiple copies of the Keys to Fauna in their region, we also recommend that they have at least one copy of Volume I to obtain useful background information on each invertebrate group, including global coverage of the ecology, general biology, phylogeny, and collection techniques for inland water invertebrates.

The current chapter is organized into an introduction, a description of the taxonomic focus of this particular volume, a section explaining the organization of most taxonomic chapters, and a key to larger taxonomic groups. This chapter's key is designed to help the reader locate the most pertinent chapter (a task probably useful mostly for students and relatively novice taxonomists) and begin identifying organisms in their samples. Readers will note that chapters within and among volumes vary in the specificity of their taxonomic keys. This reflects both the likely percent of the fauna that has been named and how easily taxa can be separated by alpha taxonomic methods and associated keys. While there are occasional references to genetic separation of taxa, the keys are primarily based on microscope identifications.

Nature and Fauna of the Neotropics and Antarctica

As is clear from the title, this volume covers inland water invertebrates of both the Neotropics and Antarctica, even though the former bioregion will likely represent over 99.9% of the taxa identified in this volume. Antarctica needed to be covered in one of our volumes, however, and we chose to put it here because many inland water species on Antarctica and surrounding islands occur in the southern portion of the Neotropical region, with a few also present in the southern tip of Africa and Australia. We have asked authors to include any species in their keys that have been identified from Antarctica and to indicate their general location. A map of the general region covered by Antarctica and nearby polar-type environments appears as Fig. 1.1.

For some readers, especially those from temperate zones, neotropical may suggest a warm climate. It is important to recognize, however, that the Neotropical bioregion stretches from the middle of Mexico (warm) through the equatorial countries (often hot) to the frigid areas of Tierra del Fuego (Argentina) and the islands of Cape Horn (Chile). It also includes both low and high altitude sites which vary greatly in their temperature range. Moreover, some regions are hot or cold deserts and others range up to very humid environments. The freshwater invertebrate fauna of these diverse regions will vary accordingly. Many of these diverse habitats are described in Chapter 2 of Volume I.

Fauna of Antarctica and Nearby Islands

Within the general Antarctic region covered in this chapter are a variety of mostly small islands (Fig. 1.1), some of which have more reported species than on the frozen continent. For example, continental Antarctica lacks permanent colonization of insects, whereas their diversity on islands range from 2 to 200 species, most of which are Diptera (flies) and Coleoptera (beetles) (Chown & Convey, 2016). Within aquatic systems, zooplankton species (e.g., rotifers and copepods) are abundant relative to most other aquatic invertebrates (other than protozoa). While additional taxa continue to be found, scientists face the problem of determining whether they are native species or newly arrived immigrants (e.g., Hughes & Convey, 2012). Table 1.1 lists the known composition of higher taxa of inland water invertebrates reported from the mainland and/or islands near Antarctica and cold Southern Ocean. This list is undoubtedly incomplete, but it will give the reader an idea of which chapters and keys to examine in this volume in search of specific taxa in these southern polar habitats and some of the scientific literature on these cold water invertebrates.

Components of Taxonomic Chapters

This volume is an identification manual to the inland water invertebrates of the Neotropical and Antarctic regions where we present information needed to diagnose and determine these organisms to various taxonomic levels. Other information concerning ecology, morphology, physiology, phylogeny, and both collecting and culturing techniques can be found in Volume I of this series. All remaining chapters in the current volume are limited to a single phylum or class, except for Chapter 2's coverage of multiple phyla of unicellular protists. Chapter 2 is designed for readers who only need general information about protists. We have attempted to include the following five sections in those chapters: (1) a brief overview of the higher level taxon; (2) a description of identification limitations for each taxon; (3) details of pertinent terminology and morphology; (4) information on preparing and preserving specimens for identification; and (5) taxonomic keys (separated by level of identification). A restricted number of especially pertinent references are given in each chapter following appropriate taxonomic sections. Readers can find a much more extensive list of references to their group in Volume I (Chapters 3 and 7–41) along with more details on collecting, preparation, and preserving major taxa. Figures in each chapter are limited to those needed for effective use of the keys. For additional anatomical information, including figures, see the relevant chapter in Volume I.

How to Use This Volume

There is an old maxim that says keys are written by people who do not need them for people who cannot use them. We have made every effort to make these keys as user-friendly as publication limitations would permit.

Figure 1.1 Map of Antarctica and surrounding islands and continents. The map shows the approximate locations of a number of islands where collection of inland water invertebrates have taken place. 

Map based on a variety of sources and produced by Nicholas Kotlinksi.

Each chapter includes a basic introduction to the morphology and terminology used in diagnosing the taxa of that section. Limitations to the current state of taxonomic knowledge are also presented so that the reader may gauge the reliability of the information presented. Only the established, peer reviewed scientific literature is used to define the taxonomic categories and epithets included. All names, as far as we are aware, conform to the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature. All nomina and taxonomic arrangements used, as well as the rejection of old names, was based on peer reviewed scientific literature. Names from unpublished manuscripts, dissertations, in house designations, or records that have not been validated are not acceptable. Provisional names and species designated taxon 1 or species 1 were not used unless they were previously recognized and accepted in the peer reviewed scientific literature (Richards & Rogers, 2011). No new species descriptions or previously unpublished taxonomic arrangements are presented.

The keys are dichotomous (no triplets or quadruplets are used) and are hierarchical. Thus, for a given group, the first keys are to the highest taxonomic category. The second set of keys is to the next level, the third set to the level below that one, and so on, down to the lowest justifiable taxonomic level based on current knowledge of that group. This level is different for different groups depending upon the state of resolution in the scientific literature. Organisms not identifiable beyond a particular taxonomic level are left at that level.

Table 1.1

Note: This list is almost certainly incomplete and will need to be updated as more inland water habitats are explored in this area. Climate change may eventually lead to additional colonization opportunities by freshwater invertebrates. This action and ongoing possibilities for aerial colonization from other continents of some taxa may eventually increase the freshwater animal diversity on the continent and surrounding islands. See full citation in the chapter references.

ANT, presence on continental Antarctica and adjacent islands; ISL, islands distant from the Antarctic continent but within the Southern Ocean.

Properly prepared keys typically employ specific, primary, diagnostic characters. Older keys often use different characters than the more recent keys. This shift in primary characters results from systematists and taxonomists testing the importance of characters. The ultimate goal of the systematist is to have the taxonomic characters used in our keys converge as closely as possible with biological reality. To a nontaxonomist, the resulting process may erroneously seem merely to be lumping and splitting taxonomic groups rather than the result of employing the scientific method to reveal natural relationships.

Surprisingly, many users do not know how to interpret a dichotomous key, making the fundamental assumption that a correct identification answer is always present in the key. This assumption generally takes one of the following three forms:

1. All species are identifiable using a given key. Many new species have yet to be described, let alone discovered. Generalized geographic ranges are provided for most taxa presented herein, yet species ranges shrink, swell, and change elevation constantly, particularly as weather and climate patterns shift. Species disperse, colonize, and suffer stochastic local extinctions. In addition to these natural processes, some species are introduced intentionally or accidentally by humans, and sometimes their establishment allows other species to invade as well. Furthermore, some regions are better studied than others: many parts of the world have not been explored, nor the fauna described. There are still plenty of new taxa to encounter.

2. All variation is accounted for in the key. As stated above, identification keys use specific, primary, diagnostic characters. Problems in identification are compounded by taxa that: (a) have different character states at different times; (b) only have diagnostic characters at certain life stages or in certain genders; and/or (c) have severely truncated morphology (often due to lack of sexual selection) and lack morphological characters to separate the species. Furthermore, new variation within taxa is continually developing, and thus one cannot assume that species are immutable or develop tools predicting those changes.

3. The key is a sufficient identification tool in and of itself. A key is just a tool. The fact that one has a bolt that needs removing and a wrench of the correct size does not mean that the bolt can be loosened. Similarly, identification keys are tools to aid in taxon identification. They are primarily tools to eliminate incorrect taxa from the range of possible choices, narrowing the field to the names that may be applicable. Keys are the process of elimination. The possibility that the specimen to be identified is new, a hybrid, anomalous, or a recent invasive colonist is always a possible answer. This is fundamental to using any identification key.

Once one arrives at a name or group of possible names for a specimen in hand, the specimen should then be compared against descriptions, distribution maps, and figures of that and other taxa in that group. The descriptions, figures, and maps are other tools to be used in identification. Direct comparison of the specimen at hand with identified museum material or using molecular comparisons is also sometimes necessary for a correct identification.

In many chapters you will discover that many or sometimes most of the species in a given taxon have not been identified or that most of the identifications are from one country or region. In those cases it is extremely important that you do not select a species name from the key unless all the descriptions fit that specimen. Instead, you should only select the next higher taxon (e.g., genus instead of species or subfamily instead of genus). To do otherwise will introduce avoidable errors into your project and possibly into the scientific literature.

Species are not immutable, fixed in location and form. They change constantly and will continue to do so, confounding keys and any other identification method, such as trait tables, character matrices, or even genetic analyses. This is why biology is far behind physics in the development of unified theories: biology is far more complex than physics, as it involves more mutable interacting parts and processes.

Key to Kingdoms and Phyla in This Volume

A major change in the identification keys for our fourth edition has been to include multiple keys per chapter that generally start with a class level key and proceed to finer and finer divisions. These allow users to work at their levels of interest, need, and skill without having to wade through extraneous taxa not in the direct line to the taxon of interest.

The following key was derived in part from Chapter 1 in Volume I of the fourth edition. It is meant to allow you to move to the next level of keys, which will be in individual chapters. The term kingdom and the specific names associated with it (i.e., Animalia and Protista) are used here loosely to designate common groupings of phyla, but these have highly questionable taxonomic significance.

1Multicellular, heterotrophic organisms as individuals or colonies (sometimes with symbiotic autotrophs)… kingdom Animalia… 2

1′Unicellular (or acellular) organisms present as individuals or colonies with nuclei irregularly arranged; heterotrophic and/or autotrophic; multiple phyla within the autotrophic protozoa phyla … kingdom Protista [Chapter 2]

2(1)Radially symmetric or asymmetric organisms living individually or in colonies … 3

2′Individuals bilaterally symmetric … 4

3(2)Surface not porous; oral tentacles always present around a closeable mouth; colonial or single, mostly single polyp forms (primarily hydra) or rarely medusoid form (freshwater jellyfish; adults with a single central body cavity opening to the exterior and surrounded by cellular endoderm, acellular mesoglea, and cellular ectoderm … phylum Cnidaria [Chapter 4]

3′Surface porous; colonial; tentacles absent; no closable orifices; without discrete organs; cellular-level (or incipient tissue-level) construction; variable, nondistinct colony shapes, including encrusting, rounded, or digitiform growth forms; skeleton of individual siliceous spicules and a collagen matrix; internal water canal system; may contain symbiotic algae; the sponges … phylum Porifera [Chapter 3]

4(2)Oral region with numerous tentacles or cilia distributed around the mouth; organism never with eversible jaws and never vermiform as adult … 5

4Oral region with two or no tentacles, or tentacles behind the mouth … 7

5(4)Oral region with tentacles, organisms in gelatinoids or branching colonies …6

5′Oral region ringed with cilia, muscular pharynx (mastax) with complex set of jaws; single free swimming, or semi-sessile living singly or in small colonies; wheel animals, or rotifers … phylum Rotifera [Chapter 8]

6(5)Oral tentacles (the lophophore) in a U or horseshoe shape around mouth; anus opens outside of lophophore; colonial animals, often in massive colonies attached to hard surfaces; true bryozoans …phylum Ectoprocta (Bryozoa) [Chapter 13]

6′Both mouth and anus open within the oral tentacles; individual (noncolonial) animals with a calyx containing a single whorl of 8–16 ciliated tentacles … phylum Entoprocta [Chapter 14]

7(4)Not with the combination of characteristics described below … 8

7′Small (50–800μm), spindle- or tenpin-shaped, ventrally flattened with a more or less distinct head bearing sensory cilia; cuticle usually ornamented with spines or scales of various shapes; posterior of body often formed into a furca with distal adhesive tubes; gastrotrichs … phylum Gastrotricha [Chapter 7]

8(7)Anterior mouth and posterior anus present … 9

8′Flattened or cylindrical, acoelomate worms with only one, ventral digestive tract opening; sometimes with evident head; turbellarian flatworms (commonly called planaria, a nonspecific and usually incorrect name) … phylum Platyhelminthes [Chapter 5]

9(8)Vermiform or not, eversible oral proboscis not present, although eversible jaws or other mouthparts may occur …10

9′Long, flattened, unsegmented worms with an eversible proboscis; ribbon worms … phylum Nemertea [Chapter 6]

10(9)Body not enclosed in a single, spiraled shell or in a hinged, bivalved shell; or if a bivalved shell is present, then animal has jointed legs … 11

10′Soft-bodied coelomates whose viscera is covered (in freshwater species) by a single or dual (hinged), hard calcareous shell; with a ventral muscular foot; fleshy mantle covers internal organs; snails, clams, and mussels … phylum Mollusca [Chapter 11]

11(10)Segmented legs absent in all life stages; if jaws are present, then body with at least 15 segments … 12

11′Adults and most larval stages with legs; if larvae without legs or prolegs (some insects), then cephalic region with paired mandibles, or eversible head, always with 14 or fewer body segments … 14

12(11)Organism vermiform, not segmented … 13

12′Organism vermiform or not, body segmented … phylum Annelida [Chapter 12]

13(12)Body cylindrical, usually tapering at both ends; cuticle without cilia, often with striations, punctuations, minute bristles, etc.; 1cm long (except family Mermithidae, < 6cm); nematodes, roundworms …phylum Nematoda [Chapter 9]

13′Body with anterior tip normally obtusely rounded or blunt, posterior tip may be bi- or trilobed; cuticle opaque to dark brown or black, and epicuticle usually crisscrossed by minute grooves; length several cm to 1m, width 0.25–3mm; only adults with free-living stage; hairworms or horsehair worms …phylum Nematomorpha [Chapter 10]

14(11)Four pairs of clawed, nonjointed legs; water bears … phylum Tardigrada [Chapter 15]

14′Adults and most larvae with jointed legs, or legs lacking, or more or less than four pairs… phylum Arthropoda [Chapter 16]²

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