Ecology of a Tool: The ground stone axes of Irian Jaya (Indonesia)

By Pierre Perequin and Anne-Marie Petrequin

New Guinea, and especially Papua New Guinea, is the last country in the world where ethnologists were able to closely observe, film and photograph the whole manufacturing chaînes opératoires of polished stone felling tools, from quarry extraction to finished tool use. Research on the polished blades of PNG has evolved over the years, following changing philosophies and research agendas. While it is clear that an exceptional sum of information has been gathered, it remains centered on that small part of the Highlands where conditions for field research were more pleasant than elsewhere. This presentation of Irian Jaya axes therefore tackles a topic that remains mostly unexplored. Until now, stone tool research in New Guinea has followed an anthropocentric approach, in which tools are seen more as vectors for social exchanges than as means of acting on the environment.

This monograph takes a different approach. Here, polished stone blades are placed at the center of the world, between, on one side, the transformed natural environment, and, on the other, the social and economic environment. This approach allows for a suggestion of new avenues of inference in archaeology, as well as to test and abandon existing ones. In this volume, the stone blade is considered as a living being, existing in balance within its biotope. This idea is not far removed from the beliefs of Irian Jaya farmers, for whom life animates certain objects of their material culture.

Following a brief presentation of Irian Jaya, the function of polished stone blades in Irian Jaya societies and the distribution of hafting styles is described, defined and studied along with the quarrying zones and the areas of diffusion and use of their production. The different trends in each area of polished blade production and exchanges are also noted. Finally, it concludes with a discussion of the ethnoarchaeological potential of these contemporary observations.

• Language: English
• Publisher: Oxbow Books
• Release date: Apr 30, 2020
• ISBN: 9781789253870

Pierre Perequin

Professor Emeritus in Archaeology at Univ. Franche-Comte, Besancon.

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ECOLOGY OF A TOOL

Published in the United Kingdom in 2020 by

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© Oxbow Books and the individual authors 2020

Hardcover Edition: ISBN 978-1-78925-386-3

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Front cover: Felling a tree with a stone adze at Langda. Photo P. Pétrequin.

Dedicated to the memory of

Diman Balyo, Kacan Balyo, Tiengen Gire, Soleiman Nari our hosts and informants

‘Time has two faces …, it has two dimensions, its length is measured by the rhythm of the sun but its depth by the rhythm of passion’

Amin Maalouf, 1988

Contents

List of figures

List of colour plates

Acknowledgements

Translator’s note

Abstract

Foreword to the English edition

Introduction

1. Ground stone blades as means of social and technical reproduction

A history of Irian Jaya in the global economy

Raw material determinism

Axes and adzes

Variability of hafting forms

Stone blades, at the heart of social reproduction

Stone blades as anthropomorphic symbols of the realm of men

2. The Yeleme quarries (Kp. Paniai) et the ground stone blades of Central Irian Jaya

Rocks from the upper Ye-I River

The Wang-Kob-Me quarry

The Brahire quarry in Ye-Ineri

Blocks from the bed of the Ye-I River

From roughout to axe in Wano country

The Axe Trail

Accessing roughouts: the Yamo Dani perspective

From roughout to axe among the Yamo Dani

The expansion of the Western Dani and the acceleration of exchanges

The Baliem and the realm of adzes

Axes and adzes, the prestige of stone blades

Partners and strangers: the limitations of exchanges

3. Material and social techniques of the Dani: black rocks and greenschists

The black rocks of Gomburu (Kp. Paniai)

The black rocks of Tagi (Kp. Jayawijaya)

Black rock axes and sacred objects

The quarries of Awigobi and greenschist blades

Ye-yao, the exchange axes

4. Adzes of the Eastern Highlands (Kp. Jayawijaya)

From rock to adze in Langda

Exploiting rocks from the river

A production controlled by specialists

The learning process

Grinding and hafting

Exchanges and diffusion

Stone blade production in the Phu Valley and the westward expansion of adzes

The archaeological sites of Koropun

Yamyhl, Red Digul and the Seashell Trail

5. Ormu-Wari and the Lowlands axes

The Mumugo Valley and schist axes

Ormu and the marriage axes

Quarrying context in the Cyclops Mountains

Knapping and pecking

Grinding and varnishing

Technical and social production in Ormu

Village specialization and exchanges

6. The ground stone blades of Irian Jaya, a synthesis

A shared background: the balance between natural environment, modes of subsistence and population density

Rocks and types of sources

Quarry access and the social context of quarrying

Quarrying techniques

Duration of the quarrying events

From rock to ground stone blade: segmentation of the chaîne opératoire

Shaping roughouts: raw material determinism

Manufacture and specialization

Grinding and grinding stones

Axes and adzes

Degree of grinding

Length of the stone blades

Handles for felling tools

Circulation of the blades

Stone blades for the living

7. Postface

Metal versus stone

Ceramic techniques and acculturation processes

Supernatural beings and cannibalistic cuisine

Gifting signs

Afterword to the English edition

Bibliography

Films

List of figures

Fig. 1. General situation of New Guinea

Fig. 2. The main geomorphological units of Irian Jaya

Fig. 3. Simplified relief and geology of Irian Jaya

Fig. 4. The main sample locations for stone blades used in this study

Fig. 5. Ceremonial axe from the Mount Hagen region, PNG and Dong Son-type bronze axe found in the Sentani region, Irian Jaya

Fig. 6. General distribution of some of the fixed- and rotating-clamp axes and adzes

Fig. 7. Wooden statue from the island of the Raja Ampat (west of the Vogelkop), featuring strips of imported fabrics and the representation of a helmet

Fig. 8. Wooden shackles for restraining slaves. Waropen, Geelvinck Bay

Fig. 9. Adze blade hammered from a machete fragment by the smiths of the Vogelkop. Ye-Ineri Village (Wano group)

Fig. 10. Woodcarver’s chisel, with a wrought iron rod. Casuarina Coast. Amsterdam Museum

Fig. 11. Distribution of the main lithic families used in the manufacture of ground stone felling blades

Fig. 12. Relations between the length of ground stone felling blades and the main petrographic families

Fig. 13. Felling with a simple male-haft axe. Ye-Ineri village (Wano group)

Fig. 14. Controlling the fall of the tree, Mulia (Western Dani group)

Fig. 15. Notching a tree using a simple male-haft axe. Ye-Ineri village (Wano group)

Fig. 16. At rest, the axe is balanced on the shoulder. Ye-Ineri village (Wano group)

Fig. 17. At rest, the adze is balanced on the shoulder. Langda village (Una group)

Fig. 18. Felling a tree using a bent-haft adze. Langda village (Una group)

Fig. 19. Wood chips produced by the adze. Langda village (Una group)

Fig. 20. The heavy axe is ineffective for cutting saplings under 10 cm in diameter. Ye-Ineri village (Wano group)

Fig. 21. Full-mortise male-haft axe. Ye-Ineri village (Wano group)

Fig. 22. Rotating-head full-mortise axe

Fig. 23. General distribution of rotating-head full-mortise axes

Fig. 24. Rotating juxtaposed-clamp axe, showing attachment perforations. North Coast, east of Urville Bay

Fig. 25. Close-up view of a rotating-head axe. Ormu-Wari (Sentani group)

Fig. 26. Position used to readjust the orientation of the cutting edge on a rotating-head axe. Ormu-Wari (Sentani group).

Fig. 27. Rotating juxtaposed-clamp axe with wickerwork. Rouffaer Valley (Meervlakte)

Fig. 28. Bent-haft adze and fastening ring. Western Sepik. Amanab/Iafar

Fig. 29. Adze with split bent haft and wickerwork. Paniai Lakes (Ekari group)

Fig. 30. Bent-haft adze with juxtaposed blade and wickerwork. Okbab (Ok group)

Fig. 31. Overview of the hafting types distribution maps

Fig. 32. Distribution of hafting types in the Vogelkop area, between Manokwari and the Paniai Lakes

Fig. 33. Distribution of hafting types from Geelvinck Bay to Mimika

Fig. 34. Distribution of hafting types from the mouth of the Mamberamo River to the South Coast

Fig. 35. Distribution of hafting types from Sentani to Tanamerah

Fig. 36. Distribution of hafting types in the Asmat area, Southern Lowlands

Fig. 37. Synthesis of the hafting families of Irian Jaya

Fig. 38. Potential relations between linguistic groups and hafting families

Fig. 39. Proportions of felling tools on the North Coast

Fig. 40. Proportions of felling tools on the South Coast

Fig. 41. This 1.15 m diameter tree was felled by 3 people working for 4 days with simple male-haft axes. Mulia region (Damal group)

Fig. 42. A tree that was burned standing, a way to reduce axe use. Keneyam village (N’duga group)

Fig. 43. Stump removal follows the felling of trees with axes when preparing an area for house construction. Ye-Ineri village (Wano group)

Fig. 44. The long digging stick is shaped with an adze and wielded by the men, Tangma village (South Baliem Dani group)

Fig. 45. While breaking the ground, pulling out stumps and roots and building terrace walls, men keep their adze handy by resting it on their neck or shoulder. Tangma village (South Baliem Dani group)

Fig. 46. When clearing land for a new field in the secondary forest, trees are often girdled and left to die out and dry; later they will be harvested for firewood. Wolo village (Central Baliem Dani group)

Fig. 47. Shortly after having been felled, the tree trunks are split into sections that are more easily carried to the village. Ye-Ineri village (Wano group)

Fig. 48. Tree stem being split with an axe and levers to produce short boards. Ye-Ineri village (Wano group)

Fig. 49. In the Highlands, the vast majority of boards produced is devoted to the construction of pig fences. Ye-Ineri village (Wano group)

Fig. 50. Broad and regular boards are reserved for architectural construction, Wet Valley (South Baliem Dani group)

Fig. 51. Splitting firewood with a simple male-haft axe. Note how the handle is used as a lever arm to force the crack in the wood open. Ye-Ineri village (Wano group)

Fig. 52. Working with a rotating-head axe. Here the head has been adjusted for adze use. Ormu-Wari village (Sentani group)

Fig. 53. Axes are used in the construction of bridges. Ye-Ineri village (Wano group)

Fig. 54. Held by the blade with the handle resting in the bend of the arm, axes can be used to sharpen stakes or rough out bow staves. Ye-Ineri village (Wano group)

Fig. 55. The wooden vessels in which red pandanus fruits are processed are first roughed out with a stone axe before being carved with an adze or a handheld stone blade. Ye-Ineri village (Wano group)

Fig. 56. Axes and adzes are also used to lift the bark from which raw fibres are obtained. The fibres are then braided into strands on the thigh for the nets that women craft. Ye-Ineri village (Wano group)

Fig. 57. While pigs are butchered mainly with a bamboo knife, axes and adzes are used to detach the ribs from the spine and break apart complex articulations. Ye-Ineri village (Wano group)

Fig. 58. Large greenschist exchange axes are stored in the men’s houses along with personal effects. Tangma village (South Baliem Dani group)

Fig. 59. A ceremonial axe blade with red ochre decoration is placed on the belly of young men during initiation ceremonies. NW River (Mimika group).

Fig. 60. This young Dani warrior, with his long black laurel wood spear, exemplifies the realm of men. Wet village (South Baliem Dani group)

Fig. 61. Once secondary growth has recolonized the gardens, women are effectively cut out from the realm of the forest. Ye-Ineri village (Wano group)

Fig. 62. Woman weeding a garden in the Baliem Valley. Tangma village (South Baliem Dani group)

Fig. 63. Left: in the Meervlakte, blunt or cutting stone tools are crafted and used by men, Turumo village (Meervlakte Turu group); Right: in the Central Highlands, tradition excludes women from the manufacture and maintenance of axes and adzes. Ormu-Wari village (Sentani group)

Fig. 64. Location of Ye-Le-Me, The Source-of-Stone-Axes (Wano group)

Fig. 65. Ye-Ineri hamlet, Ye-I Valley. The quarries of Wang-Kob-Me are a day’s walk upstream

Fig. 66. South Wano man, wearing his head net and a typical ornament of polished pig tusks. Turumo village (Wano group, Meervlakte)

Fig. 67. Pig husbandry is poorly developed in Wano villages involved in cycles of shifting cultivation in the forest (Wano group)

Fig. 68. Location of the main stone quarries between the Yamo and Van Daalen rivers in the Yeleme Massif, in Wano territory

Fig. 69. The trail leading to the Wang-Kob-Me quarry crosses the bed of the Ye-I River

Fig. 70. Wang-Kob-Me quarry. Building the green wood scaffolding

Fig. 71. Wang-Kob-Me quarry. Setting up the fire platform

Fig. 72. Wang-Kob-Me quarry. The fire platform

Fig. 73. Wang-Kob-Me quarry. Lighting the fire

Fig. 74. Wang-Kob-Me quarry. Lighting the fire and building the pyre

Fig. 75. Wang-Kob-Me quarry. Left: an armload of fresh branches and green leaves is put on the pyre to encourage the whole heap of combustibles to ignite. Right: the waiting time while the temperature rises

Fig. 76. Wang-Kob-Me quarry. The fire platform has collapsed

Fig. 77. Wang-Kob-Me quarry. Blocks detached by thermal shock are knocked down with a long pole (left), or with a sharpened wooden stake and a hammerstone (right)

Fig. 78. Wang-Kob-Me quarry. The blocks and spalls that have been extracted are sorted and divided on the ground. The largest blocks are taken out of the quarry to be split

Fig. 79. Wang-Kob-Me quarry. On the ground, the largest blocks are once again cracked using fire and then roughed out with large hammerstones

Fig. 80. Wang-Kob-Me quarry. The first roughing out of the raw blanks is done with a hammerstone, on the gravel and cobble bed of the Ye-I River

Fig. 81. Yeleme shelter. Camp area with central drying rack. Additional circular camp areas can be seen in the background, unused

Fig. 82. Yeleme shelter. Camp area in the daytime, with its central hearth, a pandanus leaf woven cape, fire tongs and a pile of axe roughouts

Fig. 83. Yeleme shelter. The knapping area, under the dripline of the vault. Note the use of the a seat-stone

Fig. 84. Yeleme shelter. Shaping a long, massive, Western Dani-type axe preform with the anvil technique

Fig. 85. Yeleme shelter. Shaping a thin Wano-type axe preform with the anvil technique

Fig. 86. Yeleme shelter. Knapping debris. Thinning flakes from a roughout shaped with the anvil technique

Fig. 87. Yeleme shelter. Direct percussion knapping to obtain a thin Wano-type preform

Fig. 88. Yeleme shelter. Number and length of knapping debris, collected every minute during the roughing-out of a preform with a hammerstone

Fig. 89. Yeleme shelter. Axe blade roughouts ready for pecking

Fig. 90. Yeleme shelter. Axe- and adze blade roughouts broken during thinning or pecking

Fig. 91. Brahire shelter. Ye-Ineri. Using a long pole, Tiengen pushes the spalls that have fallen on the fire platform

Fig. 92. Brahire shelter. Ye-Ineri. On a quarry face already fractured by thermal shock, heavy hammerstones are used to obtain long blanks of sound stone, the Mother of Axes

Fig. 93. Brahire shelter. Ye-Ineri. On rocks with high schistosity, long blanks can be extracted in this manner with a small hammerstone

Fig. 94. Brahire shelter. Ye-Ineri. To accelerate the cooling of the slabs detached by thermal shock, water is transported in bamboo tubes and poured over the stone. A carrying strap can then be attached to the preform

Fig. 95. Brahire shelter. Ye-Ineri. In this quarry located in agricultural lands and open to all, boys have their first contact with thin slabs, easy to shape but not durable. The ‘skin’ of the rock is usually reserved for this purpose

Fig. 96. Bed of the Ye-I River in front of the Yeleme shelter. Exploitation of a block by thermal shock, midstream, at a very low water level

Fig. 97. Bed of the Ye-I River

Fig. 98. The awning of the house serves as a work area for pecking roughouts, the equivalent of the knapping area under the Yeleme shelter. Ye-Ineri village (Wano group)

Fig. 99. Pecking an axe roughout at the entrance of the men’s house. Ye-Ineri village (Wano group)

Fig. 100. Axe roughouts before pecking and grinding. Ye-Ineri village (Wano group)

Fig. 101. Storing and transporting axe roughouts before they are exchanged. Ye-Ineri village (Wano group)

Fig. 102. Grinding a glaucophanitic rock axe blade. Ye-Ineri village (Wano group)

Fig. 103. Two grinding stones from Ye-Ineri (Wano group)

Fig. 104. Roughouts and ground blades of the Dubele and Wano. Ye-Ineri (Wano group) and Faoui (Dubele and Iau groups)

Fig. 105. Sharpening the stone chisel before carving the mortise of an axe handle. Ye-Ineri village (Wano group)

Fig. 106. Stone chisel. Ye-Ineri village (Wano group)

Fig. 107. The mortise is carved in the axe handle with the stone chisel and a wooden club used as a mallet. Ye-Ineri village (Wano group)

Fig. 108. Setting the axe blade inside the mortise of the handle. Ye-Ineri village (Wano group)

Fig. 109. Damage on an axe handle from use-related accidents. Ye-Ineri village (Wano group)

Fig. 110. Polishing the handle with abrasive leaves. Ye-Ineri village (Wano group)

Fig. 111. The axe handle is polished and then thoroughly burnished by hand. Ye-Ineri village (Wano group)

Fig. 112. The stone axe is the essential mediator between men and their environment. Ye-Ineri village (Wano group)

Fig. 113. Location of Mulia and the Yamo Valley, in Western Dani country

Fig. 114. Bivouacs along the quarry trail between Yeleme and the Yamo Valley

Fig. 115. Western Dani man in the high Yamo Valley. Ilu village (Western Dani group)

Fig. 116. Clearings, field enclosures and gardens in the Mulia region (Western Dani group)

Fig. 117. Tibenuk’s two expeditions, from the Yamo River to Yeleme to make axe roughouts, then to Hitadipa to make salt cakes (Western Dani group)

Fig. 118. Storing a large cake of Hitadipa salt, above the hearth. Ye-Ineri village (Wano group)

Fig. 119. Transporting a pig. Ye-Ineri village (Wano group)

Fig. 120. Grinding roughouts from Yeleme, in the Yamo Valley. Gomburu village, near Mulia (Damal group)

Fig. 121. Association of grinding grooves and cups on two sandstone blocks. Mulia village (Western Dani group)

Fig. 122. Axe blade during the grinding process or fully ground, in the Mulia region (Western Dani)

Fig. 123. Setting the stone blade in the handle, sighting the alignment and testing the balance of the tool. Mulia village (Western Dani)

Fig. 124. Close-up view of the mortise of an axe handle, with its bevelled edges preventing the accidental lengthwise splitting of the haft. Mulia village (Western Dani)

Fig. 125. Decorating an axe handle with bark wrapping and fire. Mulia village (Western Dani)

Fig. 126. The prestige and cultural branding associated with the great axe. Mulia village (Western Dani)

Fig. 127. The quarries of the Yeleme region are exploited by very different communities and linguistic groups

Fig. 128. Length of axe blades, adze blades and chisels, each divided in four classes, for the Western Dani

Fig, 129. Dani adzes and hafts, presented from north to south

Fig. 130. Aerial view of ridge cultivation in the former lake basin of the Baliem Valley. Near Wamena (Central Baliem Dani group)

Fig. 131. Dani woman wearing typical shell ornaments. Tangma village (South Baliem Dani group)

Fig. 132. Salt spring exploitation and ginger processing. Jiwika village (Central Baliem Dani group)

Fig. 133. Central Baliem adze (Suarek) representing a warrior who has fallen in combat, kept with the war trophies in a men’s house. Tangma (South Baliem Dani group)

Fig. 134. Among the Baliem Dani, the short-bladed adze is the main felling tool

Fig. 135. Examples of Baliem adze blades, made from glaucophanitic rock from Yeleme

Fig. 136. Close-up view of the hafting of a Baliem adze

Fig. 137. Close-up view of repairs on an adze handle

Fig. 138. Resharpening a disassembled adze blade. Pelegaba village (Central Baliem Dani group)

Fig. 139. The southern foothills of the Highlands are a densely forested zone with low populations, favorable to long-distance exchanges. Keneyam village (N’duga group)

Fig. 140. Axe blade, produced by sawing, exchanged to the Damal. Keneyam village (N’duga group)

Fig. 141. West-to-east evolution of axe handles

Fig. 142. Diffusion of ground stone blades made of glaucophanitic rocks from the Yeleme quarries (Wang-Kob-Me and Kembe)

Fig. 143. Thickness/width ratios for the ground stone blades of the Wano, Western Dani and Baliem Dani

Fig. 144. Evolution of stone blade length (in four classes) in relation with the distance from the quarries and following the two diffusion circuits

Fig. 145. Technical choices concerning grinding

Fig. 146. Inside a Dubele house, in the southern fringes of the Meervlakte. Darai village (Dubele group)

Fig. 147. Tame cassowary. Faoui village (Dubele and Iau groups)

Fig. 148. Marriage payment and ornaments: labret and shell ring manufactured on the North Coast of Irian Jaya. Darai village (Dubele group)

Fig. 149. Pecking a blunt adze which will be used to probe the trunk of sago palm trees. Darai village (Dubele group)

Fig. 150. Using the pecking stone to grind the sago probe. Darai village (Dubele group)

Fig. 151. Woodworking tools in the Meervlakte

Fig. 152. Transporting blocks of black schist collected from the river bed. Gomburu village (Damal group).

Fig. 153. Preliminary flaking of the black schist roughouts. Gomburu village (Damal group)

Fig. 154. Knapping a black schist cobble with a hard hammerstone. Gomburu village (Damal group)

Fig. 155. Grinding a black schist axe blade. Gomburu village (Damal group)

Fig. 156. Axe blades from the Mulia region (Western Dani group)

Fig. 157. Location of the Tagi Valley (North Baliem Dani group)

Fig. 158. Collecting black schist cobbles. Tagi Valley (North Baliem Dani group)

Fig. 159. Knapping a black schist roughout with the anvil technique. Tagi Valley (North Baliem Dani group)

Fig. 160. Axe roughout and flake obtained with the anvil technique. Tagi Valley (North Baliem Dani group)

Fig. 161. Grinding using the cups on a static collective grinding stone. Tagi Valley (North Baliem Dani group)

Fig. 162. Grinding using the groove of a static grinding stone. Tagi Valley (North Baliem Dani group)

Fig. 163. Black schist axe and adze blades. Tagi Valley (North Baliem Dani group)

Fig. 164. Black schist blades. Comparison of cross-sections between the Western Dani (Gomburu) and the Baliem Dani (Tagi)

Fig. 165. Evolution of blade length (in four classes) between Ilu and the Baliem Valley

Fig. 166. Stocking up a banana and sweet potato silo, on the trail between the Upper Ye-I and the Upper Ruhl (Wano group)

Fig. 167. The Awigobi quarry, in the Upper Ruhl, from which greenschist blades are obtained (Wano group)

Fig. 168. Preparing the fire at the Awigobi quarry (Wano group)

Fig. 169. A partially flaked greenschist sheet and a hammerstone from Awigobi (Wano group)

Fig. 170. Knapping a greenschist sheet held between the feet. Biganme shelter at Awigobi (Wano group)

Fig. 171. Regularizing a large greenschist blade on the arris of a boulder. Yeleme shelter (Wano group)

Fig. 172. A sheet of greenschist after the edges have been pecked and scraped on a boulder ridge. Ye-Ineri village (Wano group)

Fig. 173. The finishing touches on greenschist ye-yao . Left: axes are symbolically brought back in pairs. Right: smoothing out the faces with a hand-held abrader. Ye-Ineri village (Wano group)

Fig. 174. Greenschist preform and ground ye-yao. Ye-Ineri village (Wano group). Pétrequin collection

Fig. 175. Precious objects of stone and shells used in marriage payments and post-mortem exchanges in the Baliem Valley

Fig. 176. Dani man on his way to a payment ceremony, with his ye-yao on the shoulder. Pyramid region (Central Baliem Dani group)

Fig. 177. The length of Baliem ye-yao sets them distinctly apart from utilitarian axe and adze blades (Central Baliem Dani group)

Fig. 178. Sacred objects from a men’s house of the upper Wusak Valley. Sinagam village (N’duga group). Pétrequin collection

Fig. 179. Adze blades made from greenschists and similar rocks, from the quarries of the Awigobi region. Toli Valley (Toli Dani group)

Fig. 180. Adze used to cut and split nut pandanus fruits. Tangma region (South Baliem Dani group)

Fig. 181. Wooden mortar and black rock pestle used to crush pandanus nuts. Saggingama village (N’duga group)

Fig. 182. Evolution of symbols and decorations, from the ye-pibit of the Mulia region in the west to the painted shield of Ok country in the east

Fig. 183. Location of the Heime and Mumyeme valleys, the production area for basalt adzes

Fig. 184. The slopes of the Upper Heime Valley are mostly cleared around Langda

Fig. 185. The Una of the Langda and Larye region are specialized in the manufacture of adze blades of the Eastern Highlands type

Fig. 186. In Langda, basalt boulders in the bed of the Heime River are exploited by thermal shock

Fig. 187. Boulders that have been cracked by fire are then struck with a heavy quartzite hammerstone. Bed of the Heime River (Una group)

Fig. 188. Preliminary flaking is carried out with a quartzite hammerstone, with the blank leaning on a piece of driftwood. Bed of the Heime River (Una group)

Fig. 189. Abandoned knapping station, with the piece of wood, a medium-sized quartzite hammerstone, broad flakes and an irregular preform. Bed of the Heime River (Una group)

Fig. 190. Preliminary flaking with a quartzite hammerstone, directly on the cobbles of the riverbed. Bed of the Heime River (Una group)

Fig. 191. First thinning phase of a basalt roughout, knapped hand-held with a lutite hammerstone. Bed of the Heime River (Una group)

Fig. 192. Top: basalt preform roughed-out in the riverbed and brought back to the village. Bottom: mediumsized quartzite hammerstone, used in the preliminary flaking of the blanks. Bed of the Heime River (Una group)

Fig. 193. Most of the primary flakes are thick and produced by direct percussion with a hard quartzite hammerstone. Bed of the Heime River (Una group)

Fig. 194. Back at the village, the roughouts, along with a few completed preforms and lutite hammerstones, are safely stored along the wall of the men’s house. Langda hamlet (Una group)

Fig. 195. Knapping roughout, alternating edge preparation of the striking platform with a small basalt pecking stone and percussion with a soft lutite hammerstone. Langda hamlet (Una group)

Fig. 196. Two lutite hammerstones, heavily worn by percussion and grinding of the striking platforms. Langda hamlet (Una group)

Fig. 197. Roughouts are always hand-held during knapping. Langda hamlet (Una group)

Fig. 198. Knapping roughouts is always done in a sitting position, with the left arm wedged between the body and the thigh. Langda hamlet (Una group)

Fig. 199. The right arm is freed to strike in a broad, slow percussion motion. The basalt pecking stone and various lutite hammerstones are kept at hand by the right foot

Fig. 200. The level of attention and concentration of the knapper are evident in his facial expression during the last thinning and regularization phase of the preform. Langda hamlet (Una group)

Fig. 201. Sometimes, after a blow of the hammerstone, the flake is refit on the preform to understand how and why it did or did not detach in the intended way. Langda hamlet (Una group)

Fig. 202. Left: partially thinned and regularized preform. Right: completed preform, before grinding. Langda hamlet (Una group)

Fig. 203. A knapping station from the phase of roughout thinning and regularization, in front of the men’s house. Langda hamlet (Una group).

Fig. 204. Flakes produced per minute during primary flaking and thinning of a roughout at the village. Langda hamlet (Una group)

Fig. 205. Length of flakes produced per minute during primary flaking and thinning of a roughout at the village. Langda hamlet (Una group)

Fig. 206. Types of butts on the flakes produced per minute during primary flaking and thinning of a roughout at the village. Langda hamlet (Una group)

Fig. 207. Width of the butt on the flakes produced per minute during primary flaking and thinning of a roughout at the village. Langda hamlet (Una group)

Fig. 208. Presence/absence of a lip on the flakes produced per minute during primary flaking and thinning of a roughout at the village. Langda hamlet (Una group)

Fig. 209. Types of percussion bulbs on the flakes produced per minute during primary flaking and thinning of a roughout at the village. Langda hamlet (Una group)

Fig. 210. Learning by imitation begins around 5 or 6 years of age, and is initially limited to the manufacture or thin knives by tangential pecking rather than knapping. Langda hamlet (Una group)

Fig. 211. Grinding on the banks of streams is done on small 4–8 kg sandstone blocks imported from Bromela, a day’s walk from Langda. Langda hamlet (Una group)

Fig. 212. Portable sandstone grinding blocks are used on their entire surface and do not feature any cups or grooves. Langda hamlet (Una group)

Fig. 213. Only the cutting edge of the adze is thoroughly ground. Langda hamlet (Una group).

Fig. 214. Left: Preform at a preliminary stage of grinding of its central ridge. Right: Ground blade, ready for use. Langda hamlet (Una group)

Fig. 215. A future adze handle is thinned by tangential percussion; its proportions are gauged by eye. Langda hamlet (Una group)

Fig. 216. The handle is regularized by scraping with an adze used as a plane, then the hafting tenon is thinned. Langda hamlet (Una group)

Fig. 217. Once the tenon has been shaped and thinned, the angled haft is heated and bent to the shape that will give the stone adze its optimal angle of attack. Langda hamlet (Una group)

Fig. 218. After the handle has been partially dried by fire, the adze blade is temporarily attached to verify the general balance of the tool, before it is permanently hafted with rotang. Langda hamlet (Una group)

Fig. 219. Rotang is split with the teeth and then straightened by scraping it with an adze. Langda hamlet (Una group)

Fig. 220. Slivers of wood detached with the teeth form a supple sheath around the basalt blade and help the rotang lashing adhere to the tool. Langda hamlet (Una group)

Fig. 221. The supple fresh rotang strip is tautly wrapped to bind the basalt blade and the tenon of the wooden haft. Langda hamlet (Una group). Drawing J. Coras

Fig. 222. This pattern of rotang binding, with its central cross-brace and wrapping along the pointed heel, is very characteristic of the Eastern Highlands. Langda hamlet (Una group)

Fig. 223. Red ochre is kept in leaves or inside a hollowed-out calabash and is used to mark the wounds of the stone, the knapping scars that have not been erased by grinding. Langda hamlet (Una group)

Fig. 224. The bent-haft adze is an anatomical tool, designed to be carried, at any time of the day, on the shoulder of the farmer. Langda hamlet (Una group)

Fig. 225. There is a direct correlation between the length of the stone blade and the size of the bent haft. Only the very smallest adzes used to split pandanus fruits do not have a curved handle. Langda hamlet (Una group)

Fig. 226. Stone knife blades are produced by direct percussion on sheets of hard schists. Langda hamlet (Una group)

Fig. 227. Within a few minutes, the knife blade is completely ground and its edges are sharpened along its whole periphery. Langda hamlet (Una group)

Fig. 228. Two taro knife blades of a type found all over the Irian Jaya Highlands. Langda hamlet (Una group)

Fig. 229. Scraping a taro tuber with a stone knife. Koropun village (Kim-yal group)

Fig. 230. Percentage of adze blades from the Heime and Mumyeme valleys

Fig. 231. Cowries and large seashells from the South Coast are the most prized trading goods in the Eastern Highlands, which they reach via the Digul Valley. Langda hamlet (Una group)

Fig. 232. Regularity of the cross-section of basalt adze blades, from the makers (Langda) to the distant users (Eipomek)

Fig. 233. Adze blades, worn or reworked from broken blades. Langda hamlet (Una group)

Fig. 234. Length of the adze blades, in four classes. Length tends to diminish from the makers to the distant users

Fig. 235. Location of the Phu Valley in Sela (Kim-yal group)

Fig. 236. Population density is such that all arable land in the valley is in cultivation; fields are left fallow for short periods during which weeds take over. Wooded areas with primary forest are only found on the steepest slopes. Koropun village (Kim-yal group)

Fig. 237. Active, unstable talus slopes in the Phu Valley are a rich source for fine-grained magmatic rocks which have been wholly metamorphosed, but without deformation. Phu Valley (Kim-yal group)

Fig. 238. The selected blocks are heat-treated for about an hour before knapping. Phu Valley (Kim-yal group)

Fig. 239. As in Langda, the blocks are first worked resting on a piece of wood, but the roughouts are knapped hand-held with a soft lutite hammerstone. Phu Valley (Kim-yal group)

Fig. 240. Roughouts are knapped on the spot then brought back to the valley camp where they are thinned and regularized. Phu Valley (Kim-yal group)

Fig. 241. Splitting firewood with an adze implies working parallelly to the wood fibers, using wood slivers as wedges to keep the crack open. Koropun village (Kim-yal group)

Fig. 242. Complementary use of the adze and bamboo knife to detach pig ribs. Sela village (Kim-yal group)

Fig. 243. Left: adze blade recently made in the Phu Valley. Right: adze blade from an undated archaeological site. Koropun village (Kim-yal group)

Fig. 244. Adze blades produced in the Phu Valley and used in the South Baliem ValleySoba village (South Baliem Hupla group)

Fig. 245. Ground stone blades made from glaucophanitic rocks from the Yeleme Massif, from undated archaeological sites. Koropun village (Kim-yal group)

Fig. 246. Approximative location of the Tabi River and the Suntamon adze production area

Fig. 247. Location of the Mumugo River (NW River) axe production area

Fig. 248. The men’s longhouse is at the center of the village’s social, political and ritual organization. Mumugo and Ewer villages (Asmat group).

Fig. 249. The carved shield, decorated with mineral pigments, is the emblem of the accomplished man as well as being part of his war equipment. Mumugo village (Asmat group).

Fig. 250. The bed of the Mumugo River and its affluents, at a location known as Zuwaias, contain black schist and siliceous sandstone cobbles which can be shaped by rough and fine pecking. Mumugo River (Asmat group)

Fig. 251. Black schist and siliceous sandstone blades. Mumugo village (Asmat group). Pétrequin collection

Fig. 252. Location of the coastal village of Ormu-Wari and of the Torare River, on the north side of the Cyclops massif (Sentani group)

Fig. 253. Traditional stilt houses in Humboldt Bay. Kaibatu village (Sentani group)

Fig. 254. Dancing finery and the use of seashells on the North Coast of Irian Jaya. Ormu-Wari village (Sentani group)

Fig. 255. The cultural kinship between the Sentani group and more eastern coastal groups in PNG, such as the Abelam group, is evident in their paintings on tapa (beaten bark). Lake Sentani (Sentani group)

Fig. 256. At the quarries of the Cyclops Massif, curved slabs can be extracted from the layers of decomposed rock surrounding weathered boulders. Ormu-Wari village (Sentani group)

Fig. 257. The former quarry of Tawawe, on the left bank of the Torare River, one kilometer upstream from the village. Ormu-Wari village (Sentani group)

Fig. 258. The former quarry of Aiwansa, on the Torare River, 1.5 km upstream from the village of Ormu-Wari. Ormu-Wari village (Sentani group)

Fig. 259. By wetting a rock sample or rubbing it against his nose, Soleiman Nari can test the quality of the material and the nature of the crystals that will become apparent during the grinding process. Ormu-Wari village (Sentani group)

Fig. 260. The traditional weri -rock hammerstone is brought from the village when exploiting the quarries. It is a hereditary possession of the ondoafi, one of the two traditional chiefs of the community. Ormu-Wari village (Sentani group)

Fig. 261. A very large quartzite hammerstone is thrown on a fenefu rock slab resting on its edge at the foot of a rocky step. Ormu-Wari village (Sentani group)

Fig. 262. Abandoned quartzite hammerstones in the bed of the Torare River. Scale bar: 10 cm. Ormu-Wari village (Sentani group)

Fig. 263. Sighting and gauging a blank shaped by heavy percussion to evaluate its qualities and flaws as a future pecked roughout. Ormu-Wari village (Sentani group)

Fig. 264. Knapping and pecking stations are located at the foot of the facade of the stilt houses, where this socially rewarding activity is performed out in the open for everyone to see. Ormu-Wari village (Sentani group)

Fig. 265. Plan of a destroyed house and its surroundings. Ormu-Wari village (Sentani group).

Fig. 266. Stocking raw blocks, partially shaped blanks, roughouts and one partially pecked preform at the foot of a stilt. Ormu-Wari village (Sentani group).

Fig. 267. Roughouts that have been broken during pecking and abandoned dot the house’s surroundings, especially along the front wall. Ormu-Wari village (Sentani group)

Fig. 268. Preliminary shaping of a raw blank with a hard hammerstone. Ormu-Wari village (Sentani group)

Fig. 269. Hard hammerstone used in the preliminary shaping of raw blanks. Ormu-Wari village (Sentani group)

Fig. 270. Initiating the pecked channel used to split a blank in two. Ormu-Wari village (Sentani group)

Fig. 271. Deepening the pecked groove to obtain two long axe roughouts. Ormu-Wari village (Sentani group)

Fig. 272. Pecking station, with its seat-stone two pecking stones, pieces of coconut outer shell to absorb the vibrations of the roughout, and the partially grooved blank. Ormu-Wari village (Sentani group)

Fig. 273. Chaîne opératoire for the manufacture of a pecked axe blade Ormu-Wari village (Sentani group).

Fig. 274. Pecking and fine-pecking: the size and weight of the pecking stones progressively diminish as the preform approaches completion. Ormu-Wari village (Sentani group)

Fig. 275. Roughout broken during hard-hammer percussion shaping. Ormu-Wari village (Sentani group). Pétrequin collection

Fig. 276. First pecking of a roughout with a heavy pecking stone. The roughout is held in the left hand, which is resting on the thigh. Ormu-Wari village (Sentani group)

Fig. 277. To mitigate the pecking vibrations, the preform can be placed on the ground on pieces of fibrous coconut outer shell or in the sheath of a Nibong palm leaf, later used to polish the ground blade. Ormu-Wari village (Sentani group)

Fig. 278. Roughout broken during pecking. Ormu-Wari village (Sentani group)

Fig. 279. Fine-pecking involves oblique percussion with very small pecking stones. Ormu-Wari village (Sentani group).

Fig. 280. The small weri -rock pecking stones used in the final fine-pecking of the preforms. Ormu-Wari village (Sentani group)

Fig. 281. Close-up view of a hard weri -rock pecking stone and of the surface of a partially pecked blade. Ormu-Wari village (Sentani group)

Fig. 282. Fragments of preforms broken during pecking are sometimes repurposed as pecking stones. Ormu-Wari village (Sentani group)

Fig. 283. Finishing a preform with oblique dragged fine-pecking. Ormu-Wari village (Sentani group).

Fig. 284. Posture used when grinding long axe blades on a fine-grained portable grinding stone. Ormu-Wari village (Sentani group)

Fig. 285. Sheath of a palm leaf, folded and sewn laterally. These containers are notably used for carrying water during the grinding process. Ormu-Wari village (Sentani group)

Fig. 286. Cleaning the blade to verify the quality of the polish. Ormu-Wari village (Sentani group).

Fig. 287. Grinding posture for short blades. Ormu-Wari village (Sentani group).

Fig. 288. Sheaths of nibong palm leaves are used to burnish the polished blades and apply the latex slip. Ormu-Wari village (Sentani group)

Fig. 289. Left: Blade showing the degree of polish at the end of the grinding process. Right: Burnished blade with a latex slip. Ormu-Wari village (Sentani group)

Fig. 290. Each one of these blades was produced by a different maker. Ormu-Wari village (Sentani group)

Fig. 291. Relation between the width of the cutting edge and the maximum thickness of ground stone blades. Ormu-Wari village (Sentani group)

Fig. 292. Rotating-head axes from the Sentani culture. Lake Sentani and Humboldt Bay

Fig. 293. The decorations on great rotating-head axes reproduce the classic anthropomorphic imagery of Sentani beaten barks also found on the gable of men’s houses in the Abelam group. Lake Sentani or Humboldt Bay

Fig. 294. Ondoafi Soleiman Nari, one of Ormu’s two traditional chiefs, owns one of the largest collections of ground stone blades in the village, as his rank in the local hierarchy demands. Ormu-Wari village (Sentani group)

Fig. 295. The two ondoafi of Ormu appear publicly not only with the largest blades, but also with those that have been passed down through the generations and carry a long history. Ormu-Wari village (Sentani group)

Fig. 296. The hierarchy between the two halves of the village is clearly seen in their use of stone. Ormu-Wari village (Sentani group).

Fig. 297. Elderly women sometimes participate in the pecking and fine-pecking of the preforms. Ormu-Wari village (Sentani group)

Fig. 298. Only the least regular preforms made from common rocks can usually be pecked and ground by women. Ormu-Wari village (Sentani group)

Fig. 299. The quarries exploited by the people of Ormu are located along the traditional trading route between Ormu and the Lake Sentani communities, across the Cyclops Massif

Fig. 300. Despite the distinctions made by manufacturers between different axe length classes, actual measurements demonstrate an undeniable continuity. Lake Sentani and Humboldt Bay (Sentani group)

Fig. 301. Exchanges were traditionally focused on pottery made in Abar and Kaibatu, basketfuls of sago, nets, garden crops as well as pig. Ormu-Wari village (Sentani group)

Fig. 302. Only imported glass beads from Europe and China were more valued than ground stone axes as trade goods in marriage payments. Lake Sentani and Humboldt Bay (Sentani group)

Fig. 303. The exchange network of the Nari lineage is clearly determined by family relations fostering external connections. Ormu-Wari village (Sentani group)

Fig. 304. Axes of the Sentani culture, by function and percentage of length classes. Ormu-Wari, Lake Sentani and Humboldt Bay (Sentani group)

Fig. 305. General table of data on Irian Jaya ground stone blades

Fig. 306. Correlations between population density, the human transformation of the environment and certain social workings

Fig. 307. Like ground stone axes, bows have a role in the status display of made men. Mewengde village (Una group)

Fig. 308. The role of leaders. Kurulu (Central Baliem Dani group) and Suntamon village (Una group)

Fig. 309. Collaboration and group work are the rule for salt exploitation as for stone axe manufacture (Angguruk region, Yali group) and Langda village (Una group)

Fig. 310. Raw material determinism and manufacture processes and specializations

Fig. 311. Depending on the raw materials and the level of know-how, either knapping or pecking and grinding is favoured by stone blade makers. Langda village (Una group) and Central Baliem Dani group

Fig. 312. Intensity of blade grinding in relation with the walking distance from the quarries

Fig. 313. The length and weight of stone felling tools are in relation with the state of the vegetation and, on average, with the task at hand. Langda village (Una group) and Kikmei village (Una group)

Fig. 314. Evolution of ground stone blades length along a north–south transect of Irian Jaya

Fig. 315. Evolution of ground stone blades length along an east–west transect of Irian Jaya

Fig. 316. Relations between the most common length for functional stone blades and the minimal length of blades nearing the end of their use-life or abandoned after becoming too short

Fig. 317. Felling trees, cutting up and splitting stems. Kikmei village (Una group) and Langda village (Una group)

Fig. 318. Relations between the length of ground stone blades and the length of the handle. Global Irian Jaya sample

Fig. 319. Relations between the length of ground stone blades and the length of the handle for three axe samples

Fig. 320. Relations between the length of ground stone blades and the length of the handle for three adze samples

Fig. 321. The asymmetry of exchanges and payments at festive ceremonies facilitates the rapid circulation of ground stone blades. Kurulu (Central Baliem Dani group) and Weneleng village (Yali group)

Fig. 322. Goods traded for ground stone blades fall into two groups, one associated with the Central Highlands, the other with the Lowlands

Fig. 323. Men fell live trees; women split dead wood. Kikmei village (Una group) and Yarole Valley, in Angguruk (Yali group)

Fig. 324. The introduction of iron metallurgy in New Guinea

Fig. 325. Ceramics built with rings of large u -shaped coils probably followed the same diffusion routes as ironworking techniques

Fig. 326. Left: basalt adze blade from the quarries of the Sela-Suntamon region. Right: glaucophanite axe blade from the quarries of Yeleme from a former occupation site on Yapen Island (Serui)

Fig. 327. Chronological evolution of ceramics on the North Coast of Irian Jaya

Fig. 328. Left: building by paddling, a complex technique. Ouw village, Saparua, central Moluccas. Right: a mixed technique, building with small, ring shaped coils, compacted by paddling. Abar village (Sentani group)

Fig. 329. These three ceramic building techniques based solely on paddling are still limited to coastal New Guinea

Fig. 330. The ceramic building technique using a single spiraling coil may represent the end result of an acculturation phenomenon, a simplification of complex coastal techniques acquired from external sources

Fig. 331. Within the Dani linguistic group and its immediate neighbours, the distribution of salt cakes from the region of Hitadipa and Wandai exactly overlaps that of glaucophanite blades from Yeleme

Fig. 332. Salt is considered by all to be a ‘warm’ food. Jiwika spring (Central Baliem Dani group) and Western Dani group

Fig. 333. Brine-soaked urticaceae shoots are burned on a hardwood pyre. Hitadipa (Western Dani group)

Fig. 334. Crushed concretions and salty ashes are pressed into moulds. Hitadipa (Western Dani group)

Fig. 335. Objects that are hoarded or exchanged in compensation payments are all considered to originate from supernatural beings

List of colour plates

1. YELEME, Wang-Kob-Me quarry

2. YELEME, Wang-Kob-Me rock shelter, broken ground stone blade

3. YELEME, Brahire quarry

4. YELEME, Kembe quarry

5. YELEME, Awigobi quarry

6. TAGI, female ye-yao

7. ILU, male ye-yao

8. TAGI, adze blade

9. LANGDA,