Warfare & Weaponry in Dynastic Egypt

By Rebecca Dean

Defence. Attack. Symbolism. The development of warfare in any society provides an evocative glance into the lives (and deaths) of our predecessors. This is never more the case than with that most enticing of ancient civilisations, Ancient Egypt. Follow Rebecca Dean through the fascinating world of mysterious figures such as Tutankhamun and Nefertiti, examining not only the history and development of ancient Egyptian warfare, but the weapons used and the way they were handled.Swords, axes, and daggers are the weapons of choice here, as ancient Egyptian warfare is brought vividly to life through the exciting use of experimental archaeology. By examining and testing replicas of real-life artefacts, just how deadly these ancient Egyptian weapons were can be seen. Looking closely at the nature of such weapons also brings to life the formidable women who, on occasion, grasped power in a male-dominated world.Read on to discover more about this fascinating subject.

• Language: English
• Publisher: Open Road Integrated Media
• Release date: Mar 31, 2017
• ISBN: 9781473862050

Book preview

Warfare & Weaponry

in

Dynastic Egypt

For Kevin, Ingrid, and Charlotte Dean. There are not enough ways in which I can say thank you.

Warfare & Weaponry

in

Dynastic Egypt

Rebecca Dean

First published in Great Britain in 2017 by

PEN & SWORD ARCHAEOLOGY

an imprint of

Pen & Sword Books Ltd,

47 Church Street,

Barnsley,

South Yorkshire.

S70 2AS

Copyright © Rebecca Dean, 2017

A CIP record for this book is available from the British Library.

ISBN 978 1 47382 355 6

eISBN 978 1 47386 205 0

Mobi ISBN 978 1 47386 204 3

The right of Rebecca Dean to be identified as Author of this Work has been asserted by her in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

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Content

Map of Egypt

List of Figures

Acknowledgements

Simple Chronology of Ancient Egypt

Introduction

1. Warfare in Ancient Egypt

2. Weapons in Ancient Egypt

3. Defending Ancient Egypt

4. Women and Warfare in Ancient Egypt

5. Experimental Archaeology

6. Weapons Trauma in Ancient Egypt

Conclusion

Appendix: Harrogate Museum and Arts Collection

Bibliography

Reference Notes

List of Figures

•Map Figure: Map of Ancient Egypt edited by R A Dean, after Jeff Dahl ( GNU Free Documentation License – https://gnu.orf/licenses/ and Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0 International – https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ )

•Figure 1.1 Typical smiting scene, Narmer Palette ( held in the Egyptian Museum Cairo ). Drawing: Matthew Leary

•Figure 1.2 Typical smiting scene, Montu-hotep II ( from Gebelein, Deir el-Bahri, held in the Egyptian Museum, Cairo ). Drawing: Matthew Leary

•Figure 2.1 Ancient Egyptian axe-head types. Clockwise from the top: crescent axe ( Middle Kingdom ), Long simple axe ( Middle Kingdom ), Long concave axe ( Middle Kingdom ), Long narrow axe ( New Kingdom ), Long narrow axe ( New Kingdom ), Tanged axe ( Middle Kingdom ) ( varieties from the British Museum, London, and Metropolitan Museum, New York ). Drawing: Matthew Leary

•Figure 2.2 Ancient Egyptian axe-head types. Clockwise from the top left: Semi-circular axe ( Old/Middle Kingdom ), Semi-circular axe ( Old/Middle Kingdom ), Long axe ( Middle Kingdom ), Tanged axe ( Middle Kingdom ), Halberd-style axe ( Middle/New Kingdom ); Long concave axe ( Middle/New Kingdom ) ( varieties from the British Museum, London, and Metropolitan Museum, New York ). Drawing: Matthew Leary

•Figure 2.3 Ramesses II smiting scene with axe ( held in the Egyptian Museum, Cairo ). Drawing: Matthew Leary

•Figure 2.4 Soldiers using a bow and arrow ( from the funerary complex of Khafra at Giza, held in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York ). Drawing: Matthew Leary

•Figure 2.5 The chariot in use ( limestone ostracon sketch, held in the Egpytian Museum, Cairo ). Drawing: Matthew Leary

•Figure 2.6 Conical Mace-head ( photo: R A Dean, produced here with the kind permission of Harrogate Museums and Arts )

•Figure 2.7 Piriform mace-head ( photo: R A Dean, produced here with the kind permission of Harrogate Museums and Arts )

•Figure 2.8 Chipped replica mace-head after experimental archaeology, chipping circled ( Dean 2009, from original photo courtesy of J Fletcher )

•Figure 2.9 Harrogate mace-head showing chipping similar to that seen on replica mace-head ( photo: R A Dean, produced here with the kind permission of Harrogate Museum and Arts )

•Figure 2.10 Montu-hotep II smiting scene ( from Gebelein, Deir el-Bahri, held in the Egyptian Museum, Cairo ). Drawing: Matthew Leary

•Figure 2.11 Sketch of Hatshepsut holding a mace ( from Karnak obelisk ). Drawing: R A Dean

•Figure 2.12 Sword and dagger types. Clockwise from top left: Leaf-shaped blade sword ( Middle/New Kingdom ), Tapered sword and dagger ( Middle Kingdom ), Khopesh ( New Kingdom ), Leaf-shaped blade sword ( Middle Kingdom ), Tapered daggers ( Middle Kingdom ), Tapered daggers ( Middle Kingdom ), Iron tapered daggers ( New Kingdom ) ( varieties from the British Museum, London, and Metropolitan Museum, New York ). Drawing: Matthew Leary

•Figure 2.13 Replica of larger of Tutankhamun’s khopesh swords ( Photo: R A Dean )

•Figure 2.14 Nefertiti khopesh smiting scene ( held in the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston ). Drawing: Matthew Leary

•Figure 2.15 Close-up of spears held by Mehseti’s model soldiers ( held in the Egyptian Museum, Cairo ). Drawing: Matthew Leary

•Figure 3.1 Replica shield displaying crossbar stitching ( Stonborough 2011, 108 )

•Figure 3.2 Soldier carrying man-sized shield ( relief from the tomb of Djehutinakt II at el-Bersha, held in the British Museum, London ). Drawing: Matthew Leary

•Figure 3.3 Model soldiers from the tomb of Mehseti ( held in the Egyptian Museum, Cairo ). Drawing: Matthew Leary

•Figure 3.4 Model soldiers from the tomb of Mehseti ( held in the Egyptian Museum, Cairo ). Drawing: Matthew Leary

•Figure 3.5 Close-up of crossbar stitching on Mehseti soldier. Drawing: Matthew Leary

•Figure 3.6 Model shield displaying cow-hide pattern ( Held in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York ). Drawing: Matthew Leary

•Figure 3.7 Helmets similar to coiled hairstyles, Medinet Habu. Drawing: Matthew Leary

•Figure 3.8 Helmets and shields, Saqqara. Drawing: Matthew Leary

•Figure 3.9 Sherden helmets, Abu Simbel. Drawing: R A Dean

•Figure 3.10 Soldier with bands crossing his torso, holding some sort of breast plate ( relief from the tomb of Djehutinakt II at el-Bersha, held in the British Museum, London ). Drawing: Matthew Leary

•Figure 4.1 The siege scene from the tomb of Anta at Deshasheh ( Petrie 1898, Pl IV )

•Figure 4.2 The burial goods of Queen Ahhotep ( including axes, daggers, and the Golden Flies of Valour ) ( Maspero 1918 )

•Figure 4.3 Replica of axe found in the burial of Queen Ahhotep. Photo: R A Dean.

•Figure 4.4 Sketch of Hatshepsut holding a mace ( from Karnak obelisk ). Drawing: R A Dean

•Figure 4.5 Nefertiti khopesh smiting scene ( held in the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston ). Drawing: Matthew Leary

•Figure 4.6 Lime ostracon sketch portraying Tawosret ( held in the Egyptian Museum, Cairo ). Drawing: Matthew Leary

•Figure 5.1 Harrogate Museum and Arts conical and piriform/globular mace-heads used for replicas ( Photos: R A Dean, produced here by the kind permission of Harrogate Museums and Arts )

•Figure 5.2 Testing the maces out ( Dean 2009, from original photo courtesy of J Fletcher )

•Figure 5.3 Conical mace-head damage ( Dean 2009, from original photo courtesy of J Fletcher )

•Figure 5.4 X-Ray showing damage done by piriform/globular mace-head ( Dean 2009, from original X-Ray courtesy of S Buckley )

•Figure 5.5 X-Ray showing damage done by conical mace-head ( Dean 2009, from original X-Ray courtesy of S Buckley )

•Figure 5.6 De-fleshed pig skull showing conical mace-head damage ( Dean 2013; Photo: R A Dean )

•Figure 5.7 Replica axe ( Photo: R A Dean ) [ Plates ]

•Figure 5.8 Replica dagger ( Photo: R A Dean ) [ Plates ]

•Figure 5.9 Section of pig ribcage used for testing weapons ( Photo: R A Dean )

•Figure 5.10 Axe test ( Photo: R A Dean ) [ Plates ]

•Figure 5.11 Mace test ( Photo: R A Dean ) [ Plates ]

•Figure 5.12 Dagger test ( Photo: R A Dean ) [ Plates ]

•Figure 5.13 Axe damage P1A ( Photo: R A Dean )

•Figure 5.14 X-ray of axe damage P1A ( Photo: R A Dean )

•Figure 5.15 Axe damage P2A ( Photo: R A Dean )

•Figure 5.16 X-ray of axe damage P2A ( Photo: R A Dean )

•Figure 5.17 Axe damage P3A ( Photo: R A Dean )

•Figure 5.18 X-ray of axe damage P3A ( Photo: R A Dean )

•Figure 5.19 Mace damage P1M ( Photo: R A Dean )

•Figure 5.20 X-ray of mace damage P1M ( Photo: R A Dean )

•Figure 5.21 Mace damage P2M ( Photo: R A Dean )

•Figure 5.22 X-ray of mace damage P2M ( Photo: R A Dean )

•Figure 5.23 Mace damage P3M ( Photo: R A Dean )

•Figure 5.24 X-ray of mace damage P3M ( Photo: R A Dean )

•Figure 5.25 Dagger damage P1D ( Photo: R A Dean )

•Figure 5.26 X-ray of dagger damage P1D ( Photo: R A Dean )

•Figure 5.27 Dagger damage P2D ( Photo: R A Dean )

•Figure 5.28 X-ray of dagger damage P2D ( Photo: R A Dean )

•Figure 5.29 Dagger damage P3D ( Photo: R A Dean )

•Figure 5.30 X-ray of dagger damage P3D ( Photo: R A Dean )

•Figure 5.31 Replica khopesh ( Photo: R A Dean ) [ Plates ]

•Figure 5.32 Khopesh test ( Photo: R A Dean ) [ Plates ]

•Figure 5.33 P1K khopesh damage ( Photo: R A Dean ) [ Plates ]

•Figure 5.34 P3K khopesh damage ( Photo: R A Dean ) [ Plates ]

•Figure 5.35 P2K khopesh damage ( Photo: R A Dean ) [ Plates ]

•Figure 5.36 The sheet of rawhide on its frame, propped up to dry in a sheltered location ( Stonborough 2011 ) [ Plates ]

•Figure 5.37 The warped frame and hide ( Stonborough 2011 ) [ Plates ]

•Figure 5.38 The crossbar attached ( Stonborough 2011 ) [ Plates ]

•Figure 5.39 The crossbar stitching ( Stonborough 2011 ) [ Plates ]

•Figure 5.40 The experiment set-up ( Stonborough 2011 ) [ Plates ]

•Figure 5.41 Testing the axe on the shield edge ( Stonborough 2011 ) [ Plates ]

•Figure 5.42 Testing the khopesh on the shield edge ( Stonborough 2011 ) [ Plates ]

•Figure 5.43 Axe damage to the shield edge ( Stonborough 2011 ) [ Plates ]

•Figure 5.44 Khopesh damage to shield edge ( Stonborough 2011 ) [ Plates ]

•Figure 5.45 Axe damage to shield face ( Stonborough 2011 ) [ Plates ]

•Figure 5.46 Khopesh damage to the shield face ( Stonborough 2011 ) [ Plates ]

•Figure A.1: Arrowhead ( Photo: R A Dean, produced here with the kind permission of Harrogate Museum and Arts )

•Figure A.2: Arrowhead ( Photo: R A Dean, produced here with the kind permission of Harrogate Museum and Arts )

•Figure A.3: Spear-head ( Photo: R A Dean, produced here with the kind permission of Harrogate Museum and Arts )

•Figure A.4: Spear-head ( Photo: R A Dean, produced here with the kind permission of Harrogate Museum and Arts )

•Figure A.5: Spear-head ( Photo: R A Dean, produced here with the kind permission of Harrogate Museum and Arts )

•Figure A.6: Axe-head ( Photo: R A Dean, produced here with the kind permission of Harrogate Museum and Arts )

•Figure A.7: Axe-head ( Photo: R A Dean, produced here with the kind permission of Harrogate Museum and Arts )

•Figure A.8: Arrowhead ( Photo: R A Dean, produced here with the kind permission of Harrogate Museum and Arts )

•Figure A.9: Arrowhead ( Photo: R A Dean, produced here with the kind permission of Harrogate Museum and Arts )

•Figure A.10: Mace-head ( Photo: R A Dean, produced here with the kind permission of Harrogate Museum and Arts )

•Figure A.11: Mace-head ( Photo: R A Dean, produced here with the kind permission of Harrogate Museum and Arts )

•Figure A.12: Mace-head ( Photo: R A Dean, produced here with the kind permission of Harrogate Museum and Arts )

•Figure A.13: Mace-head ( Photo: R A Dean, produced here with the kind permission of Harrogate Museum and Arts )

•Figure A.14: Mace-head ( Photo: R A Dean, produced here with the kind permission of Harrogate Museum and Arts )

•Figure A.15: Mace-head ( Photo: R A Dean, produced here with the kind permission of Harrogate Museum and Arts )

•Figure A.16: Mace-head ( Photo: R A Dean, produced here with the kind permission of Harrogate Museum and Arts )

•Figure A.17: Mace-head ( Photo: R A Dean, produced here with the kind permission of Harrogate Museum and Arts )

Acknowledgements

While writing this book I have had no end of support and encouragement from some amazing people.

Professor Joann Fletcher was a wonderful help as my tutor at the University of York and her infectious enthusiasm for all things Egypt really inspired my work both at university and here. I will be forever grateful to her for all her encouragement and championing of my work.

Gemma Harker, editor extraordinaire, my dearest friend and my constant cheerleader; I cannot thank her enough for all her help.

Matthew Leary, an amazing artist whose contribution to this book cannot be overstated; his exquisite drawings have really lifted this book to new heights.

Dr Lucy Wilson, my friend and flatmate for nearly ten years; she always found my work fascinating, no matter how weird it got (and thanks again for putting up with the pig skull stored in the bath for two weeks).

Dr Katie Tyreman-Herrington, a fellow postgraduate at York; she never failed to cheer me up and gave me constant support and advice.

William Stonborough, a fellow York Egyptology student; his fascinating work has been so important to my understanding of defence in ancient Egypt.

Professor Loveday Alexander who has always been interested in my work and has unceasingly excellent counsel and guidance readily available.

The Raval family, who are wonderful friends and supporters (and suppliers of excellent whisky).

Sarah Rogers, a close friend for so many years; she has always been strong advocate for using my research for education.

The choir of St Philip and St James, Alderley Edge; they kept me relatively sane when my work threatened to completely overwhelm me.

The girls of HGHC (you know who you are!).

My family, the Dean clan (English and Welsh branches!); they are the most amazing and supportive family a girl could ask for.

And finally Eleri; for walking all over my keyboard and thereby contributing her own unique additions to the book (whether I wanted her to or not).

Any errors apparent in this book are mine, and mine alone.

Simple Chronology of Ancient Egypt

Predynastic Egypt

(pre-3100 BC)

Early Dynastic Period

(First – Second Dynasties; c.3100 BC – c.2686 BC)

The Old Kingdom

(Third – Sixth Dynasties; c.2686 BC – c.2181 BC)

First Intermediate Period

(Seventh – Eleventh Dynasties; c.2181 BC – c.2055 BC)

The Middle Kingdom

(Twelfth – Thirteenth Dynasties; c.2055 BC – c.1650 BC)

Second Intermediate Period

(Fourteenth – Seventeenth Dynasties; c.1650 BC – c.1550 BC)

The New Kingdom

(Eighteenth – Twentieth Dynasties; c.1550 BC – c.1077 BC)

Third Intermediate Period

(Twenty-First– Twenty-Fifth Dynasties; c.1077 BC – c.664 BC)

Late Period

(Twenty-Sixth – Thirty-First Dynasties; c.664 BC – c.332 BC)

Graeco-Roman Period

(332 BC – 619 AD)

Introduction

I have had a life-long fascination with ancient warfare and weaponry, as well as with ancient Egypt, so studying ancient Egyptian warfare was pretty much all of my dreams come true. This obsession with ancient Egyptian warfare was nurtured first by my remarkably understanding parents and later by a wonderful tutor at university. My meandering path through my university years eventually led to the writing of this book.

There can be no doubt that warfare in ancient Egypt is a well-studied subject. There has always been a fascination with how early societies conducted their wars and ancient Egypt is no exception. The research has been wide-ranging and certain aspects of ancient Egyptian warfare have been examined comprehensively. The potential reasons as to why the ancient Egyptians went to war have been looked at in great detail academically, along with the structure and composition of the ancient Egyptian military. There has also been a great deal of work done on events, such as the Battle of Kadesh, along with detailed studies of the various weapons that were in use throughout the Dynastic period.

Through this book I am aiming to provide a new way of looking at ancient Egyptian weapons and warfare. Firstly, we will look closely at the history and developments of warfare throughout ancient Egypt, before focusing on the composition and varying styles of weapons which were used during the millennia of Dynastic Egypt. From their earliest forms in the very beginnings of the united ancient Egyptian state to the elaborate and more technologically advanced weapons influenced by the very history of Dynastic Egypt, the weapons are a subject of much fascination.

The evidence for warfare and weaponry in ancient Egypt is compelling and wide-ranging, with a combination of artefactual, visual, and textual evidence contributing to our understanding of the subject. Whilst there are a lot of different pieces of evidence for the warlike pharaohs, literary descriptions of soldiers training and daily duties make for intriguing little insights into the non-royal participants in ancient Egyptian warfare. The same can be said for the various reliefs of the ‘warrior pharaoh’ – if you look to the side of the god-like image of the pharaoh you will sometimes see images of his soldiers and their enemies in the heat of battle. Finally, weapons burials can provide a great deal of information regarding the sort of weaponry used by the pharaohs and by other ancient Egyptians. If all of this evidence is collated and used together we can learn a great deal about ancient Egyptian warfare. Sometimes it seems that not enough work is done examining all the potential pieces of evidence together, looking at the whole picture, so to say. The minutia of Egyptian archaeology is fascinating, but it is worth taking a step back every now and then.

Weapons, while interesting, are of little use on their own, so it is also important that we look at the lives (and deaths) of people who made use of these weapons, all with varying degrees of success. Here we will look at both the pictorial evidence which can be seen in carvings and reliefs, as well as the physical remains of both soldiers and civilians who were injured during combat. On occasion we even will be able to look at contemporary written accounts of battles and executions.

A particular focus of this book will be a relatively unexplored area of the wider field of weapons and warfare in ancient