Municipal Solid Waste Energy Conversion in Developing Countries: Technologies, Best Practices, Challenges and Policy

Municipal Solid Waste Energy Conversion in Emerging Countries: Technologies, Best Practices, Challenges and Policy presents contributions from authors from India, Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Mexico, South Africa and China who come together to present the most reliable technologies for the energy conversion of municipal solid waste. The book addresses existing economic and policy scenarios and possible pathways to increase energy access and reduce the negative impacts of inadequate disposal. The book's authors discuss anaerobic digestion and other MSW conversion technologies, such as incineration and gasification. The environmental and social impacts of their introduction in small villages in emerging countries is also explored.

Due to its focus on local authors and its pragmatic approach, this book is indispensable for bioenergy researchers and practitioners in emerging economies, as well as researchers, graduate students and professionals interested in developing waste to energy technology that can be implemented in those regions. It is also particularly useful to professionals interested in energy policy and economics, due to its assessment of policy and recommendations.

• Explores the opportunities and challenges for municipal solid waste to energy technology implementation in emerging economies, such as Brazil, India, South Africa and China
• Presents a detailed and updated overview of the commercial technologies available in these countries and their economic, environmental and social aspects
• Includes case studies which highlight best practices and successful local experiences
• Examines current economics and policy barriers for these technologies

• Language: English
• Publisher: Elsevier Science
• Release date: Oct 16, 2019
• ISBN: 9780128134207

Book preview

Municipal Solid Waste Energy Conversion in Developing Countries

Technologies, Best Practices, Challenges and Policy

First Edition

Suani Teixeira Coelho

Alessandro Sanches Pereira

Daniel Hugo Bouille

Shyamala K. Mani

Marina Yesica Recalde

Atilio Armando Savino

William H.L. Stafford

Table of Contents

Cover image

Title page

Copyright

Contributors

About the Editors

Foreword

Preface

Acknowledgments

Chapter One: Introduction

Abstract

Chapter Two: Overview of Developing Countries

Abstract

2.1 Latin America: Economic, Environmental, and Social Overview

2.2 Asia: Economic, Environmental, and Social Overview

2.3 Africa: Economic, Environmental, and Social Overview

Chapter Three: Best Available Technologies (BAT) for WtE in Developing Countries

Abstract

3.1 Biological Treatment

3.2 Thermochemical Treatment

3.3 Current Situation of WtE in Latin America

3.4 Current Situation of WtE in Asia

3.5 Current Situation of WtE in Africa

Chapter Four: WtE Best Practices and Perspectives in Latin America

Abstract

4.1 MSW Management and Policies in Latin America

4.2 Energy Access in Latin America: Current Situation and Difficulties to Increase Access

4.3 WtE to Increase Energy Access in Latin America

4.4 WtE Experiences From Latin America

Chapter Five: WtE Best Practices and Perspectives in Asia

Abstract

5.1 MSW Management and Policies in Asian Countries

5.2 Energy Access in Asia: Current Situation and Difficulties to Increase Access

5.3 WtE to Increase Energy Access in Asian Developing Countries

5.4 WtE Experiences From Asia: Case Studies

Chapter Six: WtE Best Practices and Perspectives in Africa

Abstract

6.1 Municipal Solid Waste Management and Policies in Africa

6.2 Energy Access in Africa: Current Situation and Difficulties to Increase Access

6.3 WtE to Increase Energy Access in Africa

6.4 WtE Experiences From Africa: Case Studies

Chapter Seven: Existing Barriers for WtE in Developing Countries and Policy Recommendations

Abstract

7.1 Barriers for WtE in Latin America

7.2 Barriers for WtE in Asian Developing Countries

7.3 Barriers to WtE in Africa

Chapter Eight: Concluding Remarks

Abstract

References

Index

Copyright

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Notices

Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary.

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Contributors

Babu J. Alappat     Indian Institute of Technology, New Delhi, India

Daniel Hugo Bouille     Fundación Bariloche, Río Negro, Argentina

Alejandro Cittadino     Departamento de Ecología, Genética y Evolución—Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina

Suani Teixeira Coelho     Research Group on Bioenergy, Institute of Energy and Environment, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil

Rocio Diaz-Chavez     SEI Africa, Stockholm, Sweden

Javier Farago Escobar     Research Group on Bioenergy, Institute of Energy and Environment, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil

Vanessa Pecora Garcilasso     Research Group on Bioenergy, Institute of Energy and Environment, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil

Luciano Infiesta     Carbogas Industries, São Paulo, Brazil

Caio Luca Joppert     Research Group on Bioenergy, Institute of Energy and Environment, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil

Dinesh Kumar     Indian Institute of Technology, New Delhi, India

Shyamala K. Mani     National Institute of Urban Affairs (NIUA), India Habitat Centre, New Delhi, India

Max Mapako     Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, Pretoria, South Africa

Madzore Mapako     Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, Pretoria, South Africa

Juan Daniel Martínez     Grupo de Investigaciones Ambientales (GIA), Universidad Pontificia Bolivariana (UPB), Medellín, Colombia

Ben Muok     Centre for Research, Innovation and Technology, Jaramogi Odinga University, Nairobi, Kenya, East Africa

Suzan Oelofse     Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, Pretoria, South Africa

Fernando C. de Oliveira     Research Group on Bioenergy, Institute of Energy and Environment, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil

Walter Ospina     Consejo de Investigación y Tecnologí as de Valorización Energética de Residuos de Colombia (WTERT—Colombia), Colombia, SC, United States of America

Suneel Pandey     The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI), New Delhi, India

Dinesh Chandra Pant     The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI), New Delhi, India

Agamuthu Pariatamby     University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

Alessandro Sanches Pereira     Instituto 17, São Paulo, Brazil

Osvaldo Soliano Pereira     Universidade Federal da Bahia—UFBA (Federal University of Bahia), Salvador, Brazil

Marina Yesica Recalde     Fundación Bariloche, Buenos Aires, Argentina

Enrique Posada Restrepo     Área de Innovación y Desarrollo Hatch, Portland, OR, United States of America

Albert Rugumayo     Faculty of Engineering, Ndejje University of Uganda, Kampala, East Africa

Laura Salgado     Departamento de Ingeniería Mecánica, Escuela Politécnica Nacional, Ladrón de Guevara, Quito, Ecuador

Bini Samal     Forest Research Institute, Dehradun, India

Estela Santalla     Departamento Ingeniería Química, Facultad de Ingeniería/UNICEN, Buenos Aires, Argentina

Marilin Mariano dos Santos     Research Group on Bioenergy, Institute of Energy and Environment, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil

Atilio Armando Savino     International Solid Waste Association (ISWA), Buenos Aires, Argentina

Roshni Mary Sebastian     Indian Institute of Technology, New Delhi, India

Pratibha Sharma     Global Alliance for Incinerator Alternatives, Pune, India

José R. Simões-Moreira     Polytechnic School, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil

Fábio Rubens Soares     Research Group on Bioenergy, Institute of Energy and Environment, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil

Gustavo Solórzano     Asociación Mexicana de Ingeniería, Ciencia y Gestión Ambiental, A.C. (AMICA), Mexico City, Mexico

Rafael Soria     Departamento de Ingeniería Mecánica, Escuela Politécnica Nacional, Ladrón de Guevara, Quito, Ecuador

William H.L. Stafford     Council for Scientific and Industrial Research; Department of Industrial Engineering, University of Stellenbosch, Stellenbosch, South Africa

Luís Gustavo Tudeschini     Research Group on Bioenergy, Institute of Energy and Environment, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil

About the Editors

Suani Teixeira Coelho (Editor-in-Chief) acquired her M.Sc. and Ph.D. in Energy at Universidade de São Paulo (USP), where she is a professor in the Energy Post-Graduate Program (PPGE). She is also a professor at the joint Ph.D. Program in Bioenergy of USP, Universidade de Campinas (Unicamp), and Universidade Estadual Paulista (Unesp). She coordinates GBIO Bioenergy Research Group of USP’s Energy and Environment Institute, conduction research primarily in biomass and biomass energy generation, distributed energy generation, municipal and rural solid waste, cogeneration, biogas, life cycle analysis, external factors, and sugarcane. She is a recurring reviewer of several energy journals, including Energy Policy and Biomass and Bioenergy. She is also Bioenergy editor for Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews.

Alessandro Sanches Pereira (co-Editor-in-Chief) has a B.Sc. in Sanitation Technology from State University of Campinas (Unicamp), M.Sc. in Environmental Management and Policy from the University of Lund, Sweden, Ph.D. in Civil Engineering in the area of Sanitation and Environment from Unicamp, and a Postdoctoral Degree in Energy Planning from the University of São Paulo (USP). Alessandro has worked as a researcher at the Royal Institute of Technology (KTH), Sweden, and as a consultant for the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD). He currently is the Executive Director of the Instituto 17, a nonprofit organization, founded in 2018, to enable the dissemination of the sustainable development objectives (SDGs) and propose solutions based on circular economy, environmental protection, and local development. He is associate researcher at the Bioenergy Research Group (GBio) and the Research Centre for Gas Innovation (RCGI). Alessandro is also one of the Brazilian researchers who participated in Group III of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) for the preparation of the AR6 report.

Daniel Hugo Bouille (Regional Editor)

•Economist—National University of Rosario (Argentina)—Postgraduate studies in Energy Economics Institute—University of Cologne—Germany.

•Bariloche Foundation—Senior Researcher and Head of the department of environment and development.

•UNFCCC—IPCC—Coordinator Lead Author WGIII—3AR.

•UNFCCC—IPCC—Member of the Task Group on Data and Scenario Support for impact and Climate Analysis (TGICA).

•UNFCCC—IPCC—WG III—Review Editor—5AR—Chapter III

•UNDP-Climate Change—National Communication Support Program—Member of the Roster of Experts

•Climate Technology Center and Network (CTCN)—Representant of Bariloche Foundation

Short Bio: Daniel Hugo Bouille He is an economist, postgraduate in economics and energy and environmental policy, and fluent in Spanish and English.

•Since 1974, he has developed his entire professional career as an expert in economics and energy planning based in Argentina, with an exception in 1978/80 when he completed his postgraduate studies in Germany.

•In-depth knowledge of all aspects related to the countries energy policy and planning: institutional, legislation, energy policy, tariffs, financing, sectoral analysis (oil, natural gas, hydropower, nuclear, biomass, renewable) and the energy efficiency programs formulated in Argentina.

•He has been general coordinator of the Second National Communication to UNFCCC of Argentina and team leader of the GHG inventory and energy actions in mitigation.

•He has been a speaker at numerous seminars on the energy situation in LA&C Countries.

•Responsible for the elaboration and coordination of energy action plans, energy efficiency roadmaps and long-term strategies for the energy sector in different countries in Latin America.

•Acted as Team Leader in various studies and projects, among others: Future energy and power matrix definition of Venezuela or Energy Planning Guidelines implementation: Bolivia and Honduras.

•Technical Expert in studies on energy plan elaboration: Study to development the strategy or the energy sector—Peru, Strategic Long-Term Plan—Argentina, or Prospective Study of the Energy System. Proposal of an energy plan: information, scenarios, prospective, and models—Peru

•He has 44 years of experience in the energy sector developing numerous studies and providing technical assistance on energy economics, energy policy planning, energy efficiency, and climate change in Argentina and several LAC countries.

•Extensive experience in Latin America and Caribbean: Bolivia, El Salvador, Colombia, Ecuador, México, Paraguay, Peru, Uruguay, Venezuela, Costa Rica, Guatemala, Nicaragua, Panamá, Honduras, Cuba, Barbados, Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago.

•Extensive experience in the design, planning, and implementation of public policies related to energy and specifically energy efficiency and sustainable energy.

•Responsible for the development and implementation of policies and incentive schemes to increase energy efficiency in industry, transport, buildings among others.

•Project leader and technical experts in studies and projects with the focus on providing technical assistance for the planning and implementation of energy efficiency action plans: Implementation of a roadmap for energy efficiency actions and instruments in the industrial sector in México. Diagnosis, identification of measures, definition of strategic lines and instruments to improve energy efficiency,

•Technical Assistance to LA&C—Coordinator in Colombian Activities on Energy Efficiency—PROURE evaluation and proposal of new actions.

•Sustainable Energy for All—Report on Energy Efficiency Actions and policies in LA&C.

•Proposal for the implementation of an integrated strategy for energy efficiency in Uruguay

Dr. Shyamala K. Mani (Regional Editor)

Professor (Retired) National Institute of Urban Affairs (NIUA) has a PhD in Environmental Science from JNU and an MPH from School of Public Health, University of California, Berkeley, United States. A national science talent scholar, a recipient of ICAR Fellowship in Agricultural Microbiology and Fogarty Int. fellowship in Environmental Health, she has presented in several conferences and seminars in India and abroad. She received the UNCHS Global 100 award for waste management and sanitation in Bangalore in 1998, Plasticon India award for Plastics Reuse and Recycling in 2005 and recognition from UNU-IAS, Japan for Regional Centre of Expertise on Pilgrimage Places in 2007.

Dr. Shyamala K. Mani joined NIUA in December 2012 after working at the Centre for Environment Education (CEE) for 25 years. A member of several professional organizations, she has published in reputed books and journals. She helped formulate the Biomedical Waste Management Rules 1998 and 2016, Municipal Solid Waste Management (SWM) Rules 2000 and 2016, Plastics Waste Rules 2011 and 2016 promulgated by Ministry of Environment, and Forests and Climate Change. At NIUA, she has been involved in coordinating projects related to urban and regional sanitation, renewable energy planning, improving urban services through training and capacity building, and building climate change resilience in cities through education and innovation. She has been involved in capacity building and training of Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) under Swachh Bharat Mission (SBM) in 2016, 2017, and is currently Team Leader of the SBM SWM Exposure Workshops Project 2018–19. She is a member of the Expert Advisory Committee for selecting SWM projects for DST support, Chairperson of TIFAC committee for Technical Needs Assessment for the Waste sector for UNFCCC under Ministry of Science and Technology and a member of Integrated Solid Liquid Waste Management under Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation. She is also in the Advisory Committee for development of curriculum for IGNOU certificate course on Healthcare Waste Management, Solid and Liquid Waste Management, and Environmental Health & Safety.

Marina Yesica Recalde (Regional co-Editor) is an Argentinean economist specialized in Energy and Climate Change Economics. She holds a Ph.D. in Economics from Universidad Nacional del Sur. Currently she is researcher at the National Council of Science and Technology Argentina (CONICET) and the Department of Environment from Fundación Bariloche, Argentina.

Dr. Recalde made her PhD studies in Bahía Blanca (2005–2010), studying the link between energy resources, energy policies, and socioeconomic development in Argentina. In 2010, she made a short stay at the Universidad Autónoma de Barcelona, Spain. When she came back to Argentina, she worked as teacher assistant in Energy Economics. In 2012 she entered as a researcher in CONICET and in 2013 she started working as a (national and international) consultant in the field of energy and climate change.

As member of Fundación Bariloche, she has deeply and actively worked in the Climate Technology Centre & Network, in which Fundación Bariloche is one of the Consortium Members, as well as in the Technology Needs Assessment program form UNEP DTU.

Since 2013, she has provided technical assistance financed by different institutions (UNIDO, UNEP, BID, World Bank, and national governments from Latin American region, among others) in the area of energy policy, renewable energy, energy efficiency, M&E of energy efficiency, and technology transfer in Argentina, Colombia, Mexico, Paraguay, Uruguay, and other countries of the Latin American region. She has also worked as graduate and postgraduate teacher in the field of energy economics, energy regulation, and climate change in different public and private universities. She also has several papers and book chapters published in the branch of energy policies for renewable and energy efficiency promotion.

Dr. Atilio Armando Savino (Regional co-Editor)

Vice President of ARS-Association for Solid Waste Studies, National Member of ISWA in Argentina

Board Member and former President of ISWA—International Solid Waste Association

Chief Editor and author of the Waste Management Outlook for Latin America and the Caribbean—UNEP, 2018

Lead author of the Cross-cutting issue Waste in the Global Environment Outlook (GEO-6) assessment, UNEP, 2019

Former Secretary of Sanitary Health Determinants-Ministry of Health of Argentina

Former Secretary of Environment and Sustainable Development of Argentina-National Ministry of Health and Environment

Senior Consultant in Solid Waste Management

Vice President of COP11 Bureau (Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change—COP UNFCCC) (2005–2006)

Atilio was born in Buenos Aires, Argentina on August 4, 1947. He is married with four children.

He obtained his title of Certified Public Accountant from the University of Buenos Aires, Argentina (UBA) in 1971.

In 1974 he got a Bachelor degree in Economics from the University of Buenos Aires, Argentina.

In 1985 he finished his Doctorate in Political Sciences at the University of Belgrano, Buenos Aires, Argentina, pending the presentation of the thesis.

At present, he is a senior consultant on solid waste management and climate change with an experience of more than 30 years.

He is now the Vice President of Asociación para el Estudios de los Residuos Sólidos—ARS (Association for Solid Waste Studies), Argentine National Member of the International Solid Waste Association—ISWA.

At the same time, he is a board member of the International Solid Waste Association—ISWA representing the Regional Developing Network of Latin America, and member of the International Advisory Board of ISWA's official journal Waste Management & Research.

He was one of the participants at the preparation of the Global Waste Management Outlook (UNEP-ISWA 2015) and one of its reviewers.

He was the chief editor and author of the Waste Management Outlook for Latin America and the Caribbean—UNEP 2018, and lead-author of the cross-cutting issue Waste of the Geographical Environmental Outlook 6 (GEO 6)—UNEP 2019.

Between his different professional activities, it is worth mentioning that he was the General Manager of CEAMSE, a public company for the final disposal of waste of the Metropolitan Area of Buenos Aires, Argentina (16 million inhabitants) between 1992 and 2003.

From 2003 to 2006 he was the Secretary of Environment and Sustainable Development of Argentina, Vice President of COP 11 Bureau (Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change—COP UNFCCC) in 2006 and Secretary of Sanitary Health Determinants, Ministry of Health of Argentina in 2007.

Between 2008 and 2010 he was the President of the International Solid Waste Association—ISWA.

Dr. William Stafford (Regional Editor) is a life scientist with 21 years of R&D covering topics ranging from biochemistry, microbial ecology, systems biology, bioenergy, permaculture, holistic resource management, industrial ecology, and sustainability science. Bioenergy and the bioeconomy is a current research focus which requires innovative solutions to meet development objectives of economic feasibility, social acceptance, and environmental protection. William has 26 publications in peer-reviewed scientific journals and is currently a researcher in the Green Economy Solutions competency area at the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), and an extraordinary associate professor in the Department of Industrial Engineering, Stellenbosch University.

Foreword

Julio R. Meneghini, Polytechnic School, RCGI, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil

In order to foster scientific research in the energy and sustainability sector, FAPESP launched a call for the creation of the Research Centre of Gas Innovation (RCGI). Its main mission is to be a world center for advanced studies in the sustainable use of natural gas, biogas, hydrogen, as well as the management, transportation, storage, and use of CO2. The Centre, hosted at the University of São Paulo, is the result of FAPESP partnerships, in this case with SHELL Brasil, in support of high-level scientific research for the development of the energy sector. Its activities are based on three pillars: research, innovation, and dissemination of knowledge.

In this perspective, the book that is offered to the general public, and particularly to professionals and researchers in the renewable energy and sustainability sector, is fundamental because it presents the issue of the collection and disposal of solid waste in developing countries. The work in question has thematic pertinence to the subjects dealt with in the RCGI, from its main lines related to the action and promotion of energy sources with less impact to the environment, to the own sustainability in the production of biogas and energy conversion from waste.

The book clearly shows one of the key points for innovation in Brazil: the transformation of waste into energy (WtE) and its positive consequences for the environment. The costs for deploying WtE projects are discussed in the book, as well as a number of case studies, together with the challenges still existing in such countries.

The issue related to wealth generation and integration with energy production systems, in the particular case of WtE, their respective distribution and sustainability linked to the process are discussed in the book. This, without doubt, is already a success, since it has a function to awaken the reader to the problematic of applicability of finite resources in a sustainable way and with a view to reaching justice for present and future generations.

Preface

José Goldemberg, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil

The adequate collection and disposal of municipal solid waste (MSW) is a problem that has plagued urban centers since the antiquity. Even the city of Rome, the capital of the Roman Empire, more than 2000 years ago, did not have an adequate system of collection and disposal of urban waste despite having solved the problem of fresh water supply (with aqueducts) and disposal of liquid effluents (through the maxima cloaca).

Currently the problem has been solved in urban centers of the industrialized countries in the Europe, North America, Japan, and a few others countries in Asia but it is still a major problem of municipalities in many developing countries.

This book discusses the reasons why they have not fully been solved yet. It gives special emphasis to waste to energy (WtE) production systems and the environmental consequences, which—for lack of information—have been an important hurdle to the widespread use of modern methods of disposing MSW.

The major problem of the high costs of the technologies needed is discussed as another important obstacle as well as the need for public policies to facilitate their adoption.

Case studies of several countries are presented.

The book serves as an excellent information source for government authorities and entrepreneurs concerned with such problems in many developing countries.

Acknowledgments

Suani Teixeira Coelho, Full time Professor, Thesis Advisor, Graduate Program on Bioenergy, Institute of Energy and Environment, São Paulo, Brazil, Thesis Advisor, PhD Program on Bioenergy, USP/UNICAMP/UNESP, São Paulo, Brazil, Coordinator, Research Group on Bioenergy, Institute of Energy and Environment, São Paulo, Brazil, Deputy Coordinator, Economics and Policies Program, Research Center for Gas Innovation (RCGI/FAPESP/SHELL) University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil

The authors gratefully acknowledge the support from Shell Brazil and FAPESP through the Research Centre for Gas Innovation—RCGI (FAPESP Proc. 2014/50279-4), hosted at São Paulo University, and the strategic importance of the support given by ANP (Brazilian National Oil, Natural Gas and Biofuels Agency) through the R&D levy regulation. We also thank the Brazilian National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq) and Coordination for Improvement of Higher Education Personal (CAPES) for scholarships. Further acknowledgments must go to the Research Group on Bioenergy (GBIO), hosted at the Institute of Energy and Environment at the University of Sao Paulo.

Special acknowledgments to Professor José Goldemberg from University of São Paulo for the fruitful discussions and the Preface for the book.

We gratefully acknowledge the support of the R&D Project CESP-ANEEL 00061-0057/2017 Electricity Cogeneration in the Sugar and Alcohol Sector Using Regional Bioenergetics: Technological Routes for Productive Process Optimization and Business Model for Generated Energy Commercialization.

Chapter One

Introduction

Suani Teixeira Coelho⁎; Daniel Hugo Bouille†; Shyamala K. Mani‡; William H.L. Stafford§,¶    ⁎ Research Group on Bioenergy, Institute of Energy and Environment, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil

† Fundación Bariloche, Río Negro, Argentina

‡ National Institute of Urban Affairs (NIUA), India Habitat Centre, New Delhi, India

§ Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, Stellenbosch, South Africa

¶ Department of Industrial Engineering, University of Stellenbosch, Stellenbosch, South Africa

Abstract

The adequate collection and disposal of municipal solid waste (MSW) remain a challenge in developing countries as a direct consequence of inadequate practices, which in turn produce negative environmental and social impacts. In industrialized countries most MSW are collected, reused, recycled, and, before being disposed in landfills, are recovered through waste-to-energy (WtE) systems. However, in developing countries, WtE technologies still face several barriers, in all aspects, and the synergies of WtE and basic sanitation are not yet well seen. In this context, the main objective of this publication is to analyze the current situation of MSW collection and disposal, allowing the discussion of the perspectives of WtE in Latin America, Africa, and Asia.

Keywords

Biomass; MSW; Waste-to-energy (WtE); Industrialized countries; Developing countries

Biomass energy (e.g., bioenergy) can be produced from different feed stocks of biological origin, through several different processes to produce heat, electricity and transport fuels (i.e., biofuels). As stated in REN21 (2018), bioenergy as solid fuels (biomass), liquids (biofuels), or gases (biogas or biomethane) can be used to produce heat for cooking and for space and water heating in the residential sector, in traditional stoves or in modern appliances such as pellet-fed central heating boilers. Besides that, bioenergy also can be used for cogeneration [combined production of electricity and heat—CHP (combined heat and power)]. One of the important sources of bioenergy corresponds to municipal wastes (solid waste and liquid effluents), which can be used for energy conversion, mainly electricity.

However, the adequate collection and disposal of MSW remain a challenge in DCs as a direct consequence of inadequate practices, which in turn produce negative environmental and social impacts.

In industrialized countries most MSW are collected, reused, recycled, and before being disposed in landfills, are recovered through WtE systems. The share of MSW in the biomass energy conversion worldwide is significant: in 2015, 18% of all biomass corresponded to MSW for heating and 4% to biogas from different sources. Considering electricity production, in 2015 biogas was responsible for 20% and MSW corresponded to 8% of electricity produced from biomass (REN21, 2018).

Fig. 1.1 illustrates the situation of MSW and WtE in European countries (Eurostat, 2018). Eurostat data shows that WtE (and recycling) is mostly used in the more developed European countries, landfills being used preferentially in the less industrialized European ones.

Fig. 1.1 Municipal waste treatment in the European Union from Eurostat. (Data from Eurostat, 2018. Municipal Waste Treatment, EU-28 (kg per Capita).)

The situation is different in DCs, where the collection and adequate disposal of MSW are not yet a reality for most of their populations.

In Brazil, for instance, the adequate disposal of MSW is still a problem, especially in small and medium municipalities. There are more than 1000 municipalities generating about 42% of the total collected waste that have no adequate disposal in landfills. Moreover, there has been a significant increase in the specific waste generation (e.g., tones per capita per year) and adequate disposal does not follow this trend, largely in the North and Northeastern regions (ABRELPE, 2016).

In India, according to the Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs (MoHUA), Government of India, the total generation of municipal waste is 145,128 metric tonnes per day (MT/D) of which 34.07% is processed (MoHUA, 2018). It also states that 79.5% of the wards in cities have achieved 100% door to door collection of domestic garbage. The current WtE production in India is 88.4 MW and the waste to compost production for September 2016 was 1506500 metric tonnes. Urban population in India is 37 million and the number of cities 4378 (MoHUA, 2018). In India state urban development departments and urban local bodies are responsible for waste management in the different cities. According to the Clean India campaign, which started on October 2, 2014 and will go on till October 1, 2019, all cities and towns will achieve 100% collection at doorstep and sizeable amount recovered and processed. According to the Solid Waste Management Rules 2016 promulgated by the Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change, Government of India, not more than 10%–15% of the municipal waste should go for dumping, if at all only in sanitary landfills built according to specifications to prevent air, water and soil pollution. However, it is estimated that over 65% of the waste is currently going to dumpsites, which have no lining or preventive measures to stop air or water pollution.

In South Africa, a population of 52 million generates approximately 108 million tonnes of waste (Republic of South Africa, 2011). Municipalities are responsible for ensuring that adequate waste collection and disposal facilities are available. However, waste collection services are not fully rolled out, and almost one-third (30.1%) of households lack any kind of refuse facilities, particularly in small municipalities and rural areas, which are the most unserved areas. Waste disposal by landfill remains the most dominant method of disposal in South Africa. The reliance on landfill disposal, coupled with the relative low pricing for landfilling, has limited the incentive to devise alternative methods of dealing with waste. However, there are a few laudable examples where waste management practices have been recently improved with new measures and put in place to recover materials and energy from MSW. In addition, the recent development of national policy, namely the National Waste Management Strategy (NWMS), aims to drastically reduce waste to landfill through waste minimization, reuse, recycling and recovery of waste (DEA&DP, 2015) with a target of a 20% reduction in waste going to landfill by 2019.

Ahead, in this book, several other examples and difficulties are presented for African, Asian and Latin American countries. In addition, this book highlights that the main MSW disposal is still landfills and there are only a few examples on WtE processes. The main challenge is the economic feasibility since investment are extremely high and the demonstration plants remain very few. Besides these difficulties, there is another important challenge faced by DCs: energy access. As discussed in several publications, such as in BREA project (GBIO, 2015), access to cleaner and affordable energy options is essential for improving the livelihoods of the poor in DCs. In fact, there is a clear link between energy and poverty.

In DCs, there are 2.7 billion people (17% of world population) relying on traditional biomass for cooking and the overwhelming majority of the 1.2 billion have no access to electricity (38% of world population), despite some decrease in the energy deficit since 2010 (REN21, 2018). In addition, as shown in Fig. 1.2, a large percentage of such population lives in African and Asian countries.

Fig. 1.2 Population without access to electricity, by region or country, 2010–16. (Data from REN21, 2018. Global Status Report Renewables 2018 Global Status Report. Paris. http://www.ren21.net/gsr-2018/chapters/chapter_03/chapter_03/.)

For the least developed countries (LDC), the situation is much more dramatic, as shown in Fig. 1.3¹ (Traeger et al., 2017), but these countries are not the main objective of this study.

Fig. 1.3 Shares of different cooking fuel in LDCs. (Data from Traeger, R., et al., 2017. ALDC: The Least Developed Countries Report 2017: Transformational Energy Access. Geneva.)

Coelho et al. (2015) and Coelho and Goldemberg (2013) discuss that energy access is still an important challenge faced by DCs (Coelho et al., 2015; Coelho and Goldemberg, 2013). The United Nations´ Secretary General Advisory Group, in 2010, defined it as one of the most important problems to be tackled in the next few decades (UN AGECC, 2010).

According to GEA (2012) and IIASA (2012), it is important the access to affordable modern energy carriers and end-use conversion devices to improve living conditions and enhancing opportunities for economic development (IIASA, 2012). In addition, here it is mentioned the idea of energy carriers for economic development instead of only electricity access, reinforcing the idea of energy for productive uses.

As discussed by UN-Energy (2007), energy services are an essential input to economic development and social progress, notably for achieving the sustainable development goals. Energy services are necessary for successful implementation of almost all sectorial development programs, notably revenue generating activities, health, education, water, food security, agricultural development, etc. Increased access to energy allows economic growth and poverty alleviation. The need for adequate policies to incentivize electricity access for economic development is stressed by UN-Energy (UN-Energy, 2011), which presents a set of recommendations aiming to accelerate sustainable electricity development programs for electricity access in DCs (on- and off-grid areas), identifying the most effective and meaningful best practices of partnerships. This study presents recommendations for adequate policies based on the idea that the improvement in electricity access needs a PPP—public-private partnership, considering the global goals of the AGECC report (UN AGECC, 2010).

As pointed out in BREA project (GBIO, 2015), the lack of modern and affordable forms