A History of the Transportation Revolution: Short History Series, #1

By Paul R. Wonning

A History of the Transportation Revolution covers the history of the evolution of major modes of human transportation. The book provides interesting events in the development of walking, roads, airships, bicycles, aviation, kites, railroads, jet engines and rockets. Additional sections cover the history of canals, boats, ships and more.

• Language: English
• Publisher: Mossy Feet Books
• Release date: Feb 2, 2024
• ISBN: 9781386511281

Paul R. Wonning

Publisher of history, gardening, travel and fiction books. Gardening, history and travel seem an odd soup in which to stew one's life, but Paul has done just that. A gardener since 1975, he has spent his spare time reading history and traveling with his wife. He gardens, plans his travels and writes his books out in the sticks near a small town in southeast Indiana. He enjoys sharing the things he has learned about gardening, history and travel with his readers. The many books Paul has written reflect that joy of sharing. He also writes fiction in his spare time. Read and enjoy his books, if you will. Or dare.

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Introduction

Humans have progressed far since they first stood upright and walked millions of years ago. For many eons we were limited to the distance we could walk in one day. The domestication of the horse changed that. The horse could travel further, faster and carry more weight than the unaided human. The invention of the wheel and then, the wagon, once again changed human transportation. Centuries would pass before humans mastered steam power. This enabled us to build steam engines, mount them on carriages and then place them on steel rails. Soon, ribbons of steel connected cities, nations and then continents. The rise of the internal combustion engine gave rise to the automobile and with that the development of a road system that would allow humans to travel almost to the ends of the earth. The Wright Brothers built on the foundations laid by many that came before to master the art of powered, sustained, controllable flight and opened many new doors as they did so. Rockets can now take us into outer space. The next level of transportation is known only to scientists and engineers willing to peer into the future.

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Walking

Unlike many of the other revolutions in travel, walking cannot have a precise date attached to it as to when the first hominid stood upon its legs and walked upright. Scientists have not determined exactly when this occurred, or even an exact geographic location. This will probably never be known, as fossil records are incomplete, and the tremendous amount of time which has passed since it occurred. The oldest hominid fossil found to date which walked upright is the famous ‘Lucy’, discovered by American paleontologist Donald Johnson in East Africa, near the Red Sea. Lucy has been dated to about 3.1 million years old, and her species may not be the first hominids which walked upright.

Fundamental to Being Human

Most scientists agree that walking is fundamental to our development into the beings we are today. Scientists tell us the ability to walk has to do more with the curvature of the spine than any other physical characteristic. The human spine has a distinct 'S' curve to it that makes walking upright comfortable and natural to the human. No other animal has this physical feature. Apes can walk upright, but not for long periods, and are not comfortable doing so, scientists tell us. So walking upright is a uniquely human achievement among Earth's creatures.

Complicated Ability

Science has not figured out how humans walk, let alone run. Studies on the interaction between the ankle, knee, muscles and tendons have resulted in increased understanding of how the leg works with such efficiency that produces the smooth stride that marks modern humans. Engineers are using the knowledge they accumulate to produce better prosthetics for amputees and to provide a smoother walking motion to robots.

Babies Learn to Walk

Regardless of how complex the operation of walking is, human babies begin experimenting with walking early and take their first steps sometime between nine and twelve months of age. The time can vary greatly, but children have mostly mastered the ability to walk by the time they are fourteen or fifteen months old. Babies learn to walk slowly, beginning by pushing their feet against a hard surface while an adult holds them upright under their arms. Over time, the child builds strength in their legs and can support themselves by standing. Bouncing the baby on their feet helps them build strength until finally, they take those first steps.

Primary Means of Transportation

Walking remained the primary mode of transportation for millions of years. Travel was slow, limited to the distance a person could walk. While walking, close watch had to be kept for predators seeking a meal. Walking remained an important means of transportation into relatively modern times. My grandfather often talked about his teen years in the early 1900's, walking behind a horse all day plowing or planting crops. Wanting to go to a dance on Saturday night, he would ask his father if he could borrow the horse to ride. He was always told, The horse worked all day pulling a plow. It needs to rest. If you want to go to a dance, you can walk. This, I was told, was a pretty common response. If you wanted to go somewhere, you walked.

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History of Shoes

Barefoot

Early humans originated in tropical areas and did not need footwear, thus they went barefoot. Many of the early Mediterranean culture civilizations like the Egyptians and Greeks preferred going barefoot. It wasn't until humans began spreading into colder cultures that a need for footwear evolved.

Wrapping Feet in Skins or Fur

Ancient peoples made a simple shoe by wrapping their feet in animal skins. Archeologists have found evidence that about 15,000 years ago, humans used this type of foot covering to protect their feet from rocks and debris on the ground. In colder climates, they used them to protect their feet from the cold, often stuffing them with dried grass, moss or other natural insulation material.

Sandals

Archeologists have found evidence of sandals dating back 9,000 to 10,000 years old, making them some of the oldest shoes worn by humans. Humans living in tropical or warm climates probably developed the first form of sandal which in turn was the first form of shoe in history. These early sandals would have been constructed from strands of grass or leather plaited together to form a sole which in turn was strapped to the foot. The Egyptians used papyrus for the soles of their shoes. In colder climates the first shoes were simple bags constructed from leather which slipped over the foot giving some protection from rocky terrain and cold. These early foot bags would have been stuffed with grass or leaves to provide insulation in cold weather.

Sandals

The simple plaited sandal soon evolved into more sophisticated sandals which stood up to wear better and provided more protection. The foot bag probably evolved into the moccasin which was worn by many northern peoples.

Moccasin

Made famous by the Amerindian tribes of North America, the moccasin typically is a soft shoe made if animal hide, such as deer or bison. Many people all over the world wore moccasin type shoes. The sole is stitched to the upper part of the shoe and fastened by leather thongs. The natives mostly used the shoe for hunting, running and traveling through forested areas. The European settlers often wore moccasins.

Egyptian Shoes

The Egyptians may have been the first to design shoes for both the right and left foot. The sandal was the predominant shoe type and would have been worn mostly by the upper classes, as the lower classes would have gone barefoot. Some of the sandals worn were quite ornate, especially in the ruling classes.

Roman Shoes

Roman shoes comprised a great deal of varieties and styles. The Romans introduced the one-piece shoe that encased the entire foot. The Romans also wore various types of sandals, and heavy nailed shoes, probably worn outdoors. Shoes meant for winter use had cork soles and shoes worn by Senators and others of the upper classes differed greatly from those of the lower classes. Slaves generally went barefoot.

Turnshoe

The turnshoe was worn during the Middle Ages. Usually homemade, the shoe was constructed inside out, and then turned right-side-out for wear. This method put the stitching on the inside, helping to keep the shoes waterproof.

Evolution of Shoemaking

Shoemaking evolved through the ages to produce ever more sophisticated and elegant shoes. By the Middle Ages in Europe shoes were crafted more for style than they were for comfort and many ornate styles were developed for the aristocracy. Different classes of people wore different types of shoes. Commoners wore simple shoes and the higher the social class the more elegant the shoe. The high heel shoe first made its appearance in history during this time, and it was a wooden platform shoe which was developed in the 1500's. This shoe has evolved into the elegant stiletto heels worn by fashionable ladies today.

No Right or Left Shoe

No matter what class a person belonged to, up until the 1800's shoes were constructed more for function than comfort. There was no distinction between the right and left foot and there were only two basic sizes. This began to change in the early 1800's as foot differentiation started appearing on the cobbler's bench.

Beginning of Mechanized Shoemaking

Up until 1845 all parts of the shoe were made by hand. In that year a machine called the rolling machine came into use. This machine pressed the leather of the sole, making it compact, which allowed longer wear. The next revolution in the history of shoes came in 1858 when a shoemaker named Lyman R. Blake, using the sewing machine technology, invented by Elias Howe in 1846, invented a machine to sew the upper shoe to the sole. This was followed on January 24, 1871, by Charles Goodyear Jr.'s invention of a machine to sew the parts of the shoe together. Humphrey O'Sullivan developed the rubber heel to replace the leather heel in 1899.

Modern Shoemaking

Modern day shoes are completely machine-made with no part of the manufacturing process involving hand labor. Modern day techniques and materials have replaced traditional methods. Rubber, plastic and cloth have replaced leather, which is still used in expensive, dress style shoes. Gluing has replaced stitching in most athletic shoes.

The shoe has come a long way since those first sandals constructed from plaited grass and leather. Modern shoes provide the ultimate protection, comfort and style in contrast to the primitive shoes endured by our ancestors.

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A Short History of Roads

The history of the road stretches back at least 5000 years and probably more. Satellite images have revealed depressions in the land that indicate ancient roadbeds in the lands in which the ancient civilizations of the Near East developed. The first ancient roads were undoubtedly just paths between settlements beaten hard by travelers over a long period of time. The sunken paths remain visible by advanced satellite imagery.

The First Roads

The first roads developed from well used places like stream and river fords, mountain passes and other high traffic areas. From there these early roads most likely followed game trails and natural features of the land. These early roads sometimes developed into extensive networks which connected settlements for trade and travel, though they were little more than dirt paths in most cases. The predominant traffic on these early roads would have been foot traffic. Later on horses with travois and then wagons would have traveled on them.

Ridge ways

Early roads tended to follow hill ridges, as these natural features were already well drained and usually had less dense vegetation. The soil is normally already exposed from wind action and densely packed. These roads have come to be called ridge ways. They developed above flood plains, marshes and swamps and were important in human history as conduits of trade and communication. Wind, rain and other environmental factors tend to erode away the topsoil on hills, exposing harder, rocky subsoil, rocks and boulders. The roads mostly stayed on the southern side of hills, probably because the increased exposure to sunlight made them warmer and dryer than less exposed locations. Ridge ways only descended into valleys when it was necessary to cross a stream or river. Inclines tended to be steep because little, if any, excavating was done. The road's route could vary considerably on large, rounded hills as the ridgeline was wider there and people tended to follow the easiest route, which could change with weather conditions. Loads on the two wheeled carts in use at the time tended to shift during ascents and descents, necessitating constant adjustment of the cargo.

Stone Paving

Archeologists have discovered the first known paved streets in the Middle Eastern region of Mesopotamia. The Sumerians, Assyrians and Babylonians dominated the region at different times. The oldest roads found to date are at the Tell Arpachiyah in Northern Mesopotamia which dates from 6100 to 5400 BC. The earliest paved streets were in cities where heavy traffic soon churned the streets into clouds of dust or rivers of mud, depending upon the weather. It was up to Darius of Persia to build the first long, paved roads.

Royal Road

Darius, or Darius the Great as he is sometimes called, lived from about 550–486 BCE. Darius built a huge empire that included West Asia, the Caucasus, Thrace-Macedonia, Paeonia as well as portions of the Black Sea region, Central Asia and the Indus Valley. His empire also included parts of Egypt, Sudan and eastern Libya. The Royal Road stretched nearly 1,500 miles across this vast empire. The Greek Historian Herodotus, who lived from about 484 - c.430, wrote that neither snow, nor rain, nor heat, nor gloom of night, stopped Darius' royal messengers. By utilizing 111 relay stations, these royal messengers could travel the entire road in seven days. At the relay station, the messenger would find a fresh horse, food and water. This journey would normally take three months or more for ordinary travelers. Darius probably used several previous roads to build the Royal Road, improving and connecting them. He paved this road with stone. In addition to its use as the emperor’s post road, Darius could also move his army along it to stem off rebellion or invasion threats quickly. Trade also developed along the Royal Road, as merchants could carry goods over long distances. Eventually, the Royal Road would become part of the longer Silk Road.

Silk Road

The Silk Road was actually a network of roads developed by the Chinese Han Dynasty sometime around 130 BCE. The Silk Road connected with Darius' Royal Road, providing a trade route between Africa, Europe and the Middle East. In 1453 the Ottoman Turks closed access to the road during their period of conquest. The closure of the Silk Road provided impetus to a search for a sea route to China. Christopher Columbus embarked on his voyages, beginning in 1492, in response to this need in his search for a sea route to China.

Roman Roads

The Roman Empire was the first political entity in history to raise road building to a high level. These roads allowed Roman legions to traverse from one section of the empire to another quickly. They were also important conduits of trade and communication, and these roads allowed the Romans to hold their empire together. At the apex of the empire there were twenty-nine military roads radiating outward from Rome. Totaling nearly 55,000 miles when the Empire ended, Roman Roads not only insured the movement of troops around the vast empire, they facilitated trade, as well.

Road Construction

Roman engineers usually designed their roads using three levels. First, they would grade and level the roadbed and then pack it down with earth, sand, clay or small stones. The next layer was composed of crushed stone which they cemented together with lime mortar. They would next