New Testament Foundations: An Introduction for Students

By Ralph P. Martin and Carl N. Toney

Drawing upon over fifty years of scholarly experience of one of the most industrious contemporary scholars, this work, which was first published in 1975, has been revised, updated, and expanded to offer a fresh, in-depth introduction to the New Testament for today's students. Students will be immersed into the world of the first century, learning about both Greco-Roman and Jewish backgrounds. While discussing the fundamental questions surrounding the content of each book including its authorship, audience, and message, this work also engages with the wider historical-critical discussion, helping students navigate the wider world of modern New Testament scholarship.

• Language: English
• Publisher: Cascade Books
• Release date: Sep 12, 2018
• ISBN: 9781532668289

Ralph P. Martin

Ralph P. Martin (1925-2013) was Distinguished Scholar in Residence at Fuller Theological Seminary and a New Testament Editor for the Word Biblical Commentary series. He earned the BA and MA from the University of Manchester, England, and the PhD from King's College, University of London. He was the author of numerous studies and commentaries on the New Testament, including Worship in the Early Church, the volume on Philippians in The Tyndale New Testament Commentary series. He also wrote 2 Corinthians and James in the WBC series.

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New Testament Foundations

An Introduction for Students

Ralph P. Martin and Carl N. Toney

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New Testament Foundations

An Introduction for Students

Copyright ©

2018

Wipf and Stock Publishers. All rights reserved. Except for brief quotations in critical publications or reviews, no part of this book may be reproduced in any manner without prior written permission from the publisher. Write: Permissions, Wipf and Stock Publishers,

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Cascade Books

An Imprint of Wipf and Stock Publishers

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paperback isbn: 978-1-62032-088-4

hardcover isbn: 978-1-4982-8713-5

ebook isbn: 978-1-5326-6828-9

Cataloguing-in-Publication data:

Names: Martin, Ralph P., author. | Toney, Carl N., author.

Title: New Testament foundations : an introduction for students / by Ralph P. Martin and Carl N. Toney.

Description: Eugene, OR: Cascade Books,

2018

| Includes bibliographical references.

Identifiers:

isbn 978-1-62032-088-4 (

paperback

) | isbn 978-1-4982-8713-5 (

hardcover

) | isbn 978-1-5326-6828-9 (

ebook

)

Subjects: LCSH: Bible. New Testament—Introductions.

Classification:

lcc bs2330.2 n48 2018

Manufactured in the U.S.A.

01/25/18

Table of Contents

Title Page

Permissions

Preface to Revised and Expanded Edition

Abbreviations

Part One: Introduction and Backgrounds

Chapter 1: Introduction: Scripture as God’s Action in History

Chapter 2: The Text of the New Testament: Textual Criticism

Chapter 3: The Historical and Political Background of Second Temple Judaism

Chapter 4: Second Temple Judaism’s Beliefs and Practices

Chapter 5: Second Temple Jewish Literature

Chapter 6: The Social-Political Framework of the Roman Empire

Chapter 7: The Greco-Roman Religious and Philosophical Framework

Part Two: The Gospels and Acts

Chapter 8: What to Look For in the Gospels

Chapter 9: The Synoptic Problem

Chapter 10: Early Traditions About Jesus

Chapter 11: The Gospels and the Historical Jesus

Chapter 12: Mark’s Suffering Son of Man

Chapter 13: Matthew’s Gospel for the Church

Chapter 14: Luke: God Keeps Promises

Chapter 15: John: The Son of God’s Abiding Love

Chapter 16: Acts of the Apostles: The Growth of the Church

Part Three: Pauline Epistles

Chapter 17: What to Look For in the Epistles

Chapter 18: Letter Writing and Paul

Chapter 19: The Life and Theology of Paul

Chapter 20: 1–2 Thessalonians: Persecution and Parousia

Chapter 21: Galatians: Paul’s Struggle for the Gentile Church

Chapter 22: Philippians: Paul and His Friends

Chapter 23: Colossians and Crisis

Chapter 24: Christianity and Slavery in Philemon

Chapter 25: Reconciliation and the Apostle of Weakness in 1–2 Corinthians

Chapter 26: Romans: Paul’s Missionary Manifesto

Chapter 27: Christ and the Church in the Ephesian Epistle

Chapter 28: The Pastorals and the Close of Paul’s Life

Part Four: Other New Testament Writings

Chapter 29: The Pilgrim People of God in the Epistle to the Hebrews

Chapter 30: Christianity According to 1 Peter

Chapter 31: The Epistle of James and Jewish Christianity

Chapter 32: Jude’s Contending for the Faith

Chapter 33: Early Catholicism and 2 Peter

Chapter 34: Johannine Epistles: The Struggle for the Heart of a Community

Chapter 35: Revelation: The Kingdom of God versus the Empire

Epilogue

Bibliography

In memory of

T. W. Manson

(1893–1958)

and

Ralph P. Martin

(1925–2013)

To the future of

Zoe, Augustine,

Paxton, and Eden

Images, Maps, and Charts

All images in this work are either public domain according to US copyright laws, given permission according to posted copyrights in Wikimedia Commons, or given permission by Carl N. Toney. Those images used from Wikimedia Commons maintain their original permissions. Maps were either created or adapted from templates provided by David Barrett’s Bible Mapper (www.biblemapper.com).

1.1 Gutenberg Bible. Johannes Gutenberg. Gutenberg Bible, Mainz, 1454/55. Public Domain. Digital photographic reproduction by NYC Wanderer (Kevin Eng). Gutenberg Bible, Lenox Copy, New York Public Library. Wikimedia Commons, 2009. Copyright: CC BY-SA 2.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.0). Source file: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Gutenberg_Bible,_Lenox_Copy,_New_York_Public_Library,_2009._Pic_01.jpg

2.1 Papyrus Cutting and Layering. Created by Aethralis. Different Ways of Cutting Papurus Stem and Making of Papyrus Sheet. Wikimedia Commons, 2009. Copyright: CC BY-SA 3.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/). Source file: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papyrus#/media/File:Papyrus_sheet.svg

2.2 Majuscule. S. P Tregelles. Beginning Gospel of John in Codex Alexandrinus. In An Introduction to the Textual Criticism of the New Testament. London: Williams and Norgate, 1856. Copyright: Public Domain. Digital copy created by Leszek Jańczuk. Wikimedia Commons, 2009. Source file: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Codex_Alexandrinus_J_1,1-7.PNG

2.3 Miniscule. S. P Tregelles. John 1:5b–10 in Codex Ebnerianus. Example of Minuscule Writings. In An Introduction to the Textual Criticism of the New Testament. London: Williams and Norgate, 1856. Copyright: Public Domain. Digital copy created by Leszek Jańczuk. Wikicommons, 2008. Source file: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Codex_Ebnerianus_Prolog_J_1,_5b-10.JPG

2.4 Chart: Westcott-Hort’s Text Types (1881). Created by Carl N. Toney.

2.5 Chart: Streeter’s Text Types Revisions (1924). Created by Carl N. Toney.

2.6 Map: Streeter’s Geographical Distribution. Created with Bible Mapper.

3.1 Alexander the Great. Unknown artist. Alexander Sarcophagus: Illustration Showing Alexander in the Battle of Issus (333 BC). Istanbul Archaeology Museum, 4th cent. bce. Copyright: Public Domain. Photo by Carl N. Toney.

3.2 Theater of Dionysus in Athens. Photo by Carl N. Toney.

3.3 Chart: Hasmonean Dynasty. Created by Carl N. Toney.

3.4 Chart: Herodian Dynasty. Created by Carl N. Toney.

3.5 Caesarea Maritima. Photograph created by אסף.צ Caesarea Martima. Wikimedia Commons, 2005. Copyright: Public Domain. Source file: https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=File%3ACaesarea.JPG

3.6 Map: King Herod’s Kingdom. Created with Bible Mapper.

3.7 Copy of Pilate Inscription Caesarea. Photo by Carl N. Toney.

3.8 Masada. Photo by Carl N. Toney.

3.9 Western Temple Wall. Photo by Carl N. Toney.

4.1 Model of Second Temple. Designed by Michael Avi-Yonah. Holyland Model of Jerusalem. Israel Museum, 1966. Permission given by Israel Museum. Photo by Carl N. Toney.

4.2 Capernaum Fourth Century Synagogue. Photo by Carl N. Toney.

4.3 Qumran. Photo by Carl N. Toney.

5.1 Qumran Cave 4. Photo by Carl N. Toney.

5.2 Miqveh. Photo by Carl N. Toney.

5.3 Arch of Titus Relief. Unknown artist. Marble. Rome, 1st century. Photo by Carl N. Toney.

6.1 Romulus and Remus. Capitoline She-Wolf with the Boys Romulus and Remus. Unknown artist. Musei Capitolini, 13th and 15th cent. Scan from Emmanuel Müller-Baden, Bibliothek des allgemeinen und praktischen Wissens. Berlin: Deutsches Verlaghaus Bong & Co, 1904. Wikimedia Commons, 2005. Public Domain. Source file: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:She-wolf_suckles_Romulus_and_Remus.jpg

6.2 Julius Caesar. Unknown artist. Julius Caesar Bust. Marble. Exposition au Grand Palais first century e. Public Domain. Digital photographic reproduction by Gautier Poupeau. César: Exposition au Grand Palais ‘Moi, Auguste, empereur de Rome.’ Wikimedia Commons, 2014. Copyright: CC BY 2.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0). Source file: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:C%C3%A9sar_(13667960455).jpg

6.3 Caesar Augustus. Unknown artist. Augustus Statue Bust. Marble. Museo Capitolino of Rome, 30 bce. Copyright: Public Domain. Digital photographic reproduction by Direktor. Wikimeida Commons, 2011. Source file: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Augustus_Statue.JPG

6.4 Judea Captured Coin. Unknown artist. VESPASIAN. 69–79 AD. Æ Sestertius (26.30 gm). Silver, 71 ce. Copyright: Public Domain. Digital photographic reproduction by Classical Numismatic Group, Inc. Wikimedia Commons, 2007. Copyright: Classical Numismatic Group (http://www.cngcoins.com), CC BY-SA 3.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/deed.en). Source file: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Sestertius_-_Vespasiano_-_Iudaea_Capta-RIC_0424.jpg

6.5 Via Egnatia Berea. Photo by Carl N. Toney.

6.6 Map: Average Travel Time in Days (Adapted from Thompson, The Holy Internet, 61). Created with Bible Mapper.

6.7 Erastus Inscription in Corinth. Photo by Carl N. Toney.

7.1 Parthenon in Athens. Photo by Carl N. Toney.

7.2 Temple of Artemis Remains. Photo by Carl N. Toney.

7.3 Woman Pouring Libations (Delphi). Photo by Carl N. Toney.

9.1 Chart: Griesbach Hypothesis. Created by Carl N. Toney.

9.2 Chart: Two Source Hypothesis. Created by Carl N. Toney.

9.3 Chart: Four Source Hypothesis. Created by Carl N. Toney.

9.4 Chart: Proto-Luke Hypothesis. Created by Carl N. Toney.

9.5 Chart: Gospel of Luke with Markan Additions. Created by Carl N. Toney.

9.6 Chart: Farrer-Goulder Hypothesis. Created by Carl N. Toney.

9.7 Chart: Wilke Hypothesis. Created by Carl N. Toney.

11.1 Christ the Saviour. Unknow artist. Christ the Saviour (Pantokrator). Painting. Saint Catherine’s Monastery, Mount Sinai, 6th century. Copyright: US Public Domain. Digital photographic reproduction by Brandmeister-commonswiki. Wikicommons, 2011. Source file: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Spas_vsederzhitel_sinay.jpg

12.1 Capernaum House Complex. Photo by Carl N. Toney.

12.2 Sea of Galilee. Photo by Carl N. Toney.

12.3 Tiberius Denarius. Unknown artist. Tiberius. AD 14–37. AR Denarius (18mm, 3.84 g, 7h). Lugdunum (Lyon) mint. Group 1, AD 15–18. Silver, first century. Copyright: Public Domain. Digital photographic reproduction by Classical Numismatic Group, Inc. Wikimedia Commons, 2013. Copyright: Classical Numismatic Group (http://www.cngcoins.com), CC BY-SA 3.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/deed.en). Source file: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Tiberius,_Denar,_Lyon,_CNG.jpg

12.4 Alexander Jannaeus Lepton Widow’s Mite. Photo by Carl N. Toney.

12.5 Temple Inscription Warning Gentile Entry. Photo by Carl N. Toney.

13.1 Bethlehem’s Church of the Nativity. Photo by Carl N. Toney.

13.2 First Century Tombs in the Church of the Holy Sepulcher. Photo by Carl N. Toney.

13.3 Temple of Pan in Caesarea Philippi. Photo by Carl N. Toney.

13.4 Church of the Beatitudes. Photo by Carl N. Toney.

14.1 Modern Day Galilean Loaves and Fish. Photo by Carl N. Toney.

14.2 Nazareth Church of the Annunciation. Photo by Carl N. Toney.

14.3 Mount of Olives Facing Temple Mount. Photo by Carl N. Toney.

15.1 John Rylands Papyrus. Unknown scribe. Preserved at the John Rylands Library, 2nd cent. ce. Digital photographic reproduction courtesy of JRUL. Wikimedia Commons. Copyright: Public Domain. Source files: https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=708563 and https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=708563

15.2 Pool of Siloam. Photo by Carl N. Toney.

15.2 Garden of Gethsemane. Photo by Carl N. Toney.

16.1 City Street, Pompey. Photo by Carl N. Toney.

16.2 Map: Roman Empire. Created with Bible Mapper.

16.3 Paul’s Macedonia Call, Neapolis. Photo by Carl N. Toney.

16.4 Artemis of the Ephesians. Photo by Carl N. Toney.

18.1 Rembrandt’s Saint Paul. Rijn van Rembrandt. The Apostle Paul. Oil on Canvas. National Galery of Art, 1657. Digital photographic reproduction by Crisco 1492. Wikimedia Commons, 2014. Copyright: US Public Domain. Source file: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Saint_Paul,_Rembrandt_van_Rijn_(and_Workshop%3F),_c._1657.jpg

19.1 Ivory Relief of Paul. Unknown artist. Plaque Saint Paul Orient Byzantin. Ivory. Musée National du Moyen-Âge Cluny, 6th–7th century. Public Domain. Digital photographic reproduction by Clio20. Wikimedia Commons, 2006. Copyright: CC BY-SA 3.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/deed.en). Source file: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Saint-Paul.JPG

19.2 Gallio Inscription, Delphi. Photo by Carl N. Toney.

19.3 Caesarea Shoreline. Photo by Carl N. Toney.

19.4 Church of the Three Fountains. Photo by Carl N. Toney.

21.1 Thessalonica Forum (2nd cent.). Photo by Carl N. Toney.

21.2 Roman Bathtubs Thessalonica (2nd to 3rd cent.). Photo by Carl N. Toney.

22.1 Map: North versus South Galatia. Created with Bible Mapper.

23.1 Roman Forum, Philippi. Photo by Carl N. Toney.

23.2 Traditional Site of Paul’s Philippian Jail. Photo by Carl N. Toney.

23.3 Map: Location of Paul’s Imprisonment. Created with Bible Mapper.

23.4 Chart: Philippian Journeys. Created by Carl N. Toney.

23.5 Traditional Site of Lydia’s Baptism. Photo by Carl N. Toney.

24.1 Map: Colossae and Surrounding Cities. Created with Bible Mapper.

25.1 Oracle of Delphi Complex. Photo by Carl N. Toney.

26.1 Corinth Agora: Shops and Temple to Apollo. Photo by Carl N. Toney.

26.2 Corinth and Harbor Cities. Photo by Carl N. Toney.

26.3 Synagogue of the Hebrews Inscription. Photo by Carl N. Toney.

26.4 Bema where Paul stood before Gallio and Acrocorinth. Photo by Carl N. Toney.

26.5 Shack Shop (Thermopolia) in Pompey. Photo by Carl N. Toney.

26.6 Chart: 2 Corinthians Structure. Created by Carl N. Toney.

26.7 Atrium in Delos. Photo by Carl N. Toney.

26.8 Asclepion Snakes, Pergamum. Photo by Carl N. Toney.

27.1 Rome’s Forum Site Photo by Marco Verch Forum Romanum. Rome. Wikimedia Commons, 2015. Copyright: CC BY 2.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/deed.en). Source file: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Forum_Romanum_(16640231981).jpg

27.1b Rome’s Forum Rendering. Lasha Tskhondia. Roman Forum Rendering. Google 3D Warehouse and screencapture by Mark Miller. Wikimedia Commons, 2012. Copyright: CC BY-SA 3.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/). Source file: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Roman_forum_sketch_up_model.png

27.2 Rome’s Colosseum. Photo by Carl N. Toney.

28.1 Theater Ephesus. Photo by Carl N. Toney.

28.2 Ephesus Bathroom. Photo by Carl N. Toney.

28.3 Ephesus Roman Soldier Equipment. Photo by Carl N. Toney.

29.1 Mosaic Ephesus. Photo by Carl N. Toney.

30.1 Judean Wilderness. Photo by Carl N. Toney.

31.1 Pergamum Temple of Trajan. Photo by Carl N. Toney.

31.2 Map: Route of 1 Peter’s Courier (Adapted from Elliott, 1 Peter, map 3). Created with Bible Mapper.

32.1 Olive Press and Grinder in Capernaum. Photo by Carl N. Toney.

32.2 Basalt Grinders. Photo by Carl N. Toney.

34.1 Zoppo’s Saint Peter. Zoppo, Marco. Saint Peter. Tempera on Poplar Panel. National Gallery of Art, 1468. Copyright: US Public Domain. Digital photographic reproduction: Slowking4. Wikimedia Commons, 2016. Source file: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Saint_Peter_A33446.jpg

34.2 Saint Peter’s Basilica (Traditional Tomb of Peter). Photo by Carl N. Toney.

35.1 Ephesus Commercial Agora. Photo by Carl N. Toney.

36.1 Pergamum Altar to Zeus. Photo by Carl N. Toney.

36.2 Vesuvius from Pompeii. Cropped version. Original photograph created by Heinz-Josef Lücking. Panoramic View of the Forum of Pompeii with Vesuvius. Wikimedia Commons, 2008. Copyright: CC BY-SA 3.0 DE (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/de/deed.en). Source file: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Pompeii_Forum.JPG

36.3 Smyrna Agora. Photo by Carl N. Toney.

Permissions

In line with previous editions, Ralph P. Martin has drawn on some material for several of the following chapters that first appeared in various books and journals. In the chapter, What to Look For in the Gospels, Martin drew upon some material that first appeared in his book, Mark: Evangelist and Theologian. From the same source, occasional parts of the chapter on Mark’s Gospel have been used. In the chapter on Matthew’s Gospel, some paragraphs are taken from Martin, St. Matthew’s Gospel in Recent Study, 132–36, and permission to use this material has been given by the editor.

Other sources have included Martin’s articles published in Vox Evangelica: The Composition of 1 Peter in Recent Study, 29–42; and Aspects of Worship in the New Testament Church, 6–32. See also, his Acts (Scripture Union Bible Study), the New Century Bible Commentary on Philippians as well as Colossians and Philemon; Worship in the Early Church; and the essay titled Authority in the Light of the Apostolate, 66–82 in Evangelical Quarterly. On Ephesians, a few paragraphs have been used from Martin’s section on Ephesians in volume 11 of the Broadman Bible Commentary, and from the essay An Epistle in Search of a Life-Setting, 296–302 in Expository Times. For the acknowledged use of this material editorial and publishers’ permission was sought and generously granted.

Quoted English Scripture is from the New Revised Standard Version, and the Greek text is from Nestle-Aland 27th edition, unless otherwise noted. Regarding primary sources, unless otherwise indicated, quotations from ancient Greco-Roman authors are from the Loeb Classic Library. Other quotes come from James Charlesworth, Old Testament Pseudepigrapha; Florentino García Martínez and E. J. C. Tigchelaar, Dead Sea Scrolls; and Jacob Neusner, Mishnah.

Preface to Revised and Expanded Edition

The present work was originally printed as two volumes by Ralph P. Martin. In transforming this into a singular volume, chapters have been reordered, some added or omitted, and there has been a consideration of balancing material for the sake of a consistent flow. This volume represents the third and final collaboration between Ralph P. Martin and Carl N. Toney, a journey that began with the revision of Martin’s Word Biblical Commentary on 2 Corinthians. After this current project was underway, Martin (1925–2013) passed away, leaving the bulk of the revision to Toney. As such, Toney has experienced the tension of being a redactor, wishing to convey the voice of a beloved and received tradition, while also seeking to make it relevant for a new generation of readers.

The core backbone of the material is indebted to the previous editions, but significant revision has occurred. In some ways, this volume may remind readers of Martin’s revision of Hawthorne’s Word Biblical Commentary on Philippians. For the most part, this revision attempts to maintain and honor the views presented by Martin. Thus, some of Martin’s unique contributions to New Testament studies, such as his arguments regarding the Philippians hymn, are highlighted. In addition, Martin’s postulation of Lukan authorship for Ephesians and the Pastorals remain, although presented as jumping off points for a larger discussion of authorship. Martin was well known for his encyclopedic knowledge of scholarship, and this is conveyed both in the text and the footnotes.

Readers will also note some changes have occurred. Thus, the present edition no longer contains the summary three chapters from the first volume nor those final chapters in the second volume, and the epilogue of the second volume has been modified to serve as a conclusion for the whole work. Further, the more detailed commentary on Mark, exegetical notes on 1 Corinthians, and eight chapters on Acts have been removed in order to make room for a fuller discussion of other material, such as surveying the structure and content of all twenty-seven books. Some chapters have been reordered, so that the chapter on Galatians, which Martin favored as the earliest of Paul’s letters, has been switched with the chapter on 1–2 Thessalonians because Toney places 1 Thessalonians as the first letter of Paul; however, Martin’s arguments are still included, so the reader will have to decide the best choice. Martin also stands firmly within the traditional Lutheran perspective on Paul and the law, while Toney’s views are indebted to scholars of the New Perspective, so it is hoped that the reader will benefit from the dialogue between the authors. Further, while much of Martin’s views were influenced by older discussions on Gnosticism, Toney grounds these ideas, including the dualistic language, within the wider Greco-Roman worldview. As a compromise, the current volume uses the term proto-Gnostic. At the end of his career, Martin became more interested in rhetorical criticism, so some rhetorical outlines of works have been included.

In the course of revision, certain gaps were filled from the previous work, such as adding a more extensive discussion on 1 Corinthians, and bringing a greater consistency of discussing critical issues of authorship and backgrounds along with themes and surveying the content of each work. Bibliographical material was also updated, although only minor attention was given to newer critical methods, such as postcolonial criticism. Readers of previous versions hopefully will discover fresh material that may make up for any felt loss if a favorite chapter or section from the previous volumes is missing.

For the original first volume, Dr. Martin was indebted to several generations of students, who in various classrooms had heard the contents of those pages. In particular, he paid tribute to two student assistants, Tom Provence, who compiled the exegetical notes for the chapter The Great Thanksgiving and Invitation (now omitted), and Eric Behrens, whose use of the typewritten material, which underlay the previous edition did so much, by way of helpful criticism, to make the meaning clearer. Finally, Dr. Glenn W. Barker read the proofs of the previous edition and helped further to make the writing more intelligible. Such errors as remain must of course be debited to the author.

In the second volume, Dr. Martin paid tribute to those whose questions, comments, and criticisms in the classroom context had clarified his own thinking. Several student assistants had contributed significantly, in particular, Eric Behrens, Lynn A. Losie, James L. Resseguie, Allan R. Selander, and John S. Piper. The last-named, was responsible for compiling exegetical material on 1 Corinthians (now omitted). Ann Lausch, secretary in the Graduate Office, took care of the preparation of the manuscript of the previous edition, and Martin was in her debt for this service so willingly rendered.

For the current volume, Dr. Toney would like to acknowledge the help of his research assistant, Jake Austin, for reviewing the bibliographical material and his research. Appreciation is extended to Kent Anderson who provided grant money for a partial sabbatical that helped rejuvenate this project. Thanks as well to fellow faculty at Hope International University who have reviewed material, including Drs. Joseph Grana, Blair Wilgus, and Roberto Sirvent. Thanks to colleagues who continue to provide stimulating conversation including Drs. David Creech, David Downs, Matt Jenson, and Kip Lines. In addition, I remain grateful to my doctor father, Dr. Thomas Tobin. On a personal level, I continue to be grateful for my church community, Purpose Church and Coram Deo, as well as my friends, Kiley Wallace, Luke Bayon, Shane Drake, Darren Beaver, Matt Grant, Curtis Holtzen, Phil Towne, Patrick Horn, Jarret LeMaster, and Erik Waage. I wish to thank my extended family of the Toneys, Griffins, Hubers, Kristofs, Mikolajczyks, and Solomons. My love and thanks to my children, Zoe, Augustine, Paxton, and Eden, who continue to challenge me to keep my readings of Scripture fresh and interesting. Thanks to my wife, Lisa, for her continued partnership, support, and love.

Finally, I wish to honor my mentor and friend, Dr. Ralph P. Martin, who was a premiere scholar and follower of Jesus Christ. He stood on the backs of his teachers like T. W. Mason and D. E. Nineham, and he provided a broad back for a whole new generation of scholars, such as myself, who are indebted to his tutelage. As Christians, we ground our lives in the hope of the resurrection, and in this reminiscence of Martin’s life and passing, I am reminded of Martin’s words recorded in his Cornerstone Biblical Commentary on 2 Corinthians,

In

1

Corinthians

15

, Paul’s primary hope was to be alive at the Parousia and receive his new body (circumventing death); however, in

2

Corinthians

5

, the reality of death was upon Paul, and so he offered his second hope that, even if he died, he would be in the presence of Christ, which is far better than being embodied in this life. . . . Paul’s closing thought applies this eschatology to practical living. Until death, or the Parousia, occurs, all Christians must seek a life pleasing to the Lord, since what we have done with our earthly bodies will be called to account (cf. Rom

14

:

10

–

12

).¹

Carl N. Toney

Hope International University

Fullerton, CA

1. Baker, Martin, and Toney,

1

&

2

Corinthians,

315

.

Abbreviations

For abbreviations of biblical books, ancient sources, journals, commentaries, and monograph series, please consult The SBL Handbook of Style, 2nd edition. The following are a list of the major abbreviations used in this book.

ALGHJ Arbeiten zur Literatur und Geschichte des hellenistischen Judentums

AB Anchor Bible = AYB

ABD Anchor Bible Dictionary. Edited by David Noel Freedman. 6 vols. New York: Doubleday, 1992

ABR Australian Biblical Review

ABRL Anchor Bible Reference Library

AGJU Arbeiten zur Geschichte des antiken Judentums und des Urchristentums

AmJT American Journal of Theology

ANQ Andover Newton Quarterly

ANRW Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt: Geschichte und Kultur Roms im Spiegel der neueren Forschung. Part 2, Principat. Edited by Hildegard Temporini and Wolfgang Haase. Berlin: de Gruyter, 1972–

AThR Anglican Theological Review

AYB Anchor Yale Bible = AB

BA Biblical Archaeologist

BDAG Danker, Frederick W., Walter Bauer, William F. Arndt, and F. Wilbur Gingrich. Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature. 3rd ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000 (Danker-Bauer-Arndt-Gingrich)

BDB Brown, Francis, S. R. Driver, and Charles A. Briggs. A Hebrew and English Lexicon of the Old Testament. Clarendon Press: Oxford, 1906

BECNT Baker Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament

BETL Bibliotheca Ephemeridum Theologicarum Lovaniensium

BEvT Beiträge zur evangelischen Theologie

BHT Beiträge zur historischen Theologie

Bib Biblica

BJRL Bulletin of the John Rylands University Library of Manchester

BNTC Black’s New Testament Commentaries

BR Biblical Research

BSac Bibliotheca Sacra

BTB Biblical Theology Bulletin

BWANT Beiträge zur Wissenschaft vom Alten und Neuen Testament

BZ Biblische Zeitschrift

BZNW Beihefte zur Zeitschrift für die neutestamentliche Wissenschaft

CBC Cambridge Bible Commentary

CBQ Catholic Biblical Quarterly

CH Church History

CNT Commentaire du Nouveau Testament

DJG Dictionary of Jesus and the Gospels. Edited by Joel B. Green, Jeannine K. Brown, and Nicholas Perrin. 2nd ed. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity, 2013

DLNT Dictionary of the Later New Testament and Its Developments. Edited by Ralph P. Martin and Peter H. Davids. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity, 1997

DPL Dictionary of Paul and His Letters. Edited by Gerald F. Hawthorne and Ralph P. Martin. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity, 1993

EBib Etudes bibliques

EGT Expositor’s Greek Testament

ETL Ephemerides Theologicae Lovanienses

EvQ Evangelical Quarterly

EvT Evangelische Theologie

ExpTim Expository Times

EΤ English Translation

FRLANT Forschungen zur Religion und Literatur des Alten und Neuen Testaments

GNC Good News Commentary

HeyJ Heythrop Journal

HNT Handbuch zum Neuen Testament

HNTC Harper’s New Testament Commentaries

HTR Harvard Theological Review

ICC International Critical Commentary

IDB The Interpreter’s Dictionary of the Bible. Edited by George A. Buttrick. 4 vols. New York: Abingdon, 1962

IDBSup Interpreter’s Dictionary of the Bible: Supplementary Volume. Edited by Keith Crim. Nashville: Abingdon, 1976

Int Interpretation

ISBE International Standard Bible Encyclopedia. Edited by Geoffrey W. Bromiley. 4 vols. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1979–1988 (revised)

JAAR Journal of the American Academy of Religion

JAC Jahrbuch für Antike und Christentum

JBL Journal of Biblical Literature

JETS Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society

JJS Journal of Jewish Studies

JNES Journal of Near Eastern Studies

JSNT Journal for the Study of the New Testament

JSNTSup Journal for the Study of the New Testament Supplement Series

JSOT Journal for the Study of the Old Testament

JSOTSup Journal for the Study of the Old Testament Supplement Series

JSP Journal for the Study of the Pseudepigrapha

JSPSup Journal for the study of the Pseudepigrapha. Supplement series

JTC Journal for Theology and the Church

JTI Journal for Theological Interpretation

JTS Journal of Theological Studies

KBANT Kommentare und Beiträge zum Alten und Neuen Testament

KD Kerygma und Dogma

LEC Library of Early Christianity

LNST Library of New Testament Studies

LNTS The Library of New Testament Studies

LSJ Liddell, Henry George, Robert Scott, Henry Stuart Jones. A Greek-English Lexicon. 9th ed. with revised supplement. Oxford: Clarendon, 1996

LXX Septuagint

MAAR Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome

MNTC Moffatt New Testament Commentary

MT Masoretic Text

n.s. new series

NCB New Century Bible

NIB The New Interpreter’s Bible. Edited by Leander E. Keck. 12 vols. Nashville: Abingdon, 1994–2004

NICNT New International Commentary on the New Testament

NIDB New Interpreter’s Dictionary of the Bible. Edited by Katharine Doob Sakenfeld. 5 vols. Nashville: Abingdon, 2006–2009

NIDNTT New International Dictionary of New Testament Theology. Edited by Colin Brown. 4 vols. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1975–1978

NIGTC New International Greek Testament Commentary

NovT Novum Testamentum

NovTSup Supplements to Novum Testamentum

NRTh La nouvelle revue théologique

NTAbh Neutestamentliche Abhandlungen

NTApoc New Testament Apocrypha. 2 vols. Revised ed. Edited by Wilhelm Schneemelcher. English trans. ed. Robert McL. Wilson. Cambridge: Clarke; Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 2003

NTD Das Neue Testament Deutsch

NTS New Testament Studies

o.s. old series

PNTC Pelican New Testament Commentaries

POxy Oxyrhynchus Papyri

PRS Perspectives in Religious Studies

RB Revue biblique

RevExp Review and Expositor

RNT Reading the New Testament

RQ Römische Quartalschrift für christliche Altertumskunde und Kirchengeschichte

RTP Revue de Theologie et Philosophie

RTR Reformed Theological Review

SBL Society of Biblical Literature

SBLMS Society of Biblical Literature Monograph Series

SBLSCS Society of Biblical Literature Commentary on the Septuagint

SBLSP Society of Biblical Literature Seminar Papers

SBLSymS Society of Biblical Literature Symposium Series

SBT Studies in Biblical Theology

SE Studia Evangelica I, II, III (= TU 73 [1959], 87 [1964], 88 [1964], etc.)

SEÅ Svensk exegetisk årsbok

SHBC Smyth & Helwys Bible Commentary

SJ Studia Judaica

SJLA Studies in Judaism in Late Antiquity

SJT Scottish Journal of Theology

SLATS Society for New Testament Studies

SNTSMS Society for New Testament Studies Monograph Series

SP Sacra Pagina

ST Studia Theologica

Str-B Strack, H. L., and P. Billerbeck. Kommentar zum Neuen Testament aus Talmud und Midrasch. 6 vols. Munich, 1922–1961

SUNT Studien zur Umwelt des Neuen Testaments

TBC Torch Bible Commentaries

TDNT Theological Dictionary of the New Testament. Edited by Gerhard Kittel and Gerhard Friedrich. Translated by Geoffrey W. Bromiley. 10 vols. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1964–1976

TNTC Tyndale New Testament Commentary

TDOT Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament. Edited by G. Johannes Botterweck and Helmer Ringgren. Translated by John T. Willis et al. 8 vols. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1974–2006

Them Themelios

ThTo Theology Today

TLZ Theologische Literaturzeitung

TNTC Tyndale New Testament Commentary

TSK Theologische Studien und Kritiken

TU Texte und Untersuchungen

TynBul Tyndale Bulletin

TZ Theologische Zeitschrift

VC Vigiliae Christianae

VD Verbum Domini

VE Vox Evangelica

VT Vetus Testamentum

WBC Word Biblical Commentary

WTJ Westminster Theological Journal

WUNT Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament

ZKT Zeitschrift fur katholische Theologie

ZNW Zeitschrift für die neutestamentliche Wissenschaft und die Kunde der älteren Kirche

ZTK Zeitschrift für Theologie und Kirche

Part One:

Introduction and Backgrounds

1

Introduction: Scripture as God’s Action in History

An Approach to Reading the Bible

The New Testament is the story of God’s action in history. Repeatedly, the New Testament writers stress that what God has done in Jesus Christ is almost too incredible and too marvelous for words. For this action is nothing less than God’s initiative in coming to earth in the person of his Son in whom, as Dorothy L. Sayers once remarked, God wrote his autobiography.¹

1.1%20Gutenberg%20BibleWiki.jpg

Gutenberg Bible

But for all this emphasis on the wonderful and supernatural, the New Testament writings never allow us to forget that this story is part of the stuff of history, and the study of any piece of ancient literature is made more meaningful if we can place it in its contemporary setting. That setting would certainly include the historical period of the literature, along with its religious, cultural, and social milieu. If the literature in question belongs to the great classics of our human heritage, then we shall certainly expect that it will wrestle with profound issues such as life and death, the tragedy and victory of the human spirit, love and loss, and humanity’s quest for purpose and meaning. This means that the influences will be not simply sociological and cultural; they will also include the forces of spiritual endeavor and striving.

The New Testament literature represent different types of writing, which may be classified as Gospels (Matthew to John), history (Acts), letters (Romans to Jude), and apocalypse (Revelation). These documents, while various in literary form and style as well as emanating from different authors or schools of early Christianity, remain united in a particular way. They represent the literary deposits of a set of Christian communities, pulsating with life in Christ and conscious of an identity as the people of God, which marked them off from other religious groups in the first century.

In the study of the Gospels and Acts, the completed wholes of the evangelical records represent the end product of a line of development from public proclamation through the oral period to the gradual collection of sayings into the fixed form of written stories. With the investigation of the New Testament letters and Revelation, the apostolic writers and their disciples consciously seem to be drawing on earlier traditions of creed and catechism, sermon and scriptural teaching, song and liturgical praise. Above all, the New Testament represents the literary creations, under God, of these apostolic assemblies. Tradition and freedom combine to shape the background out of which the New Testament writings came. These early Christian writers wanted to conserve the best of past traditions in order to ensure continuity as the generations lengthened, and to be responsive to the Spirit’s direction in new situations and new challenges.

We come to our study of the New Testament writings with a desire to know what they are all about. At the outset of our Bible study, we have the ability to make only preliminary and tentative observations because we cannot expect to be in a position to know the leading themes of any book until we have first read and studied it! As we begin our study, let us say a few words to orientate ourselves concerning the Gospels, Acts, Pauline literature, and other New Testament writings.

Overview of the New Testament Writings

The Gospels

At the outset of the study of the Gospels, we face two fundamental questions raised by these documents.² First, what is the "kerygma" (kērygma),³ that is, the proclamation or the apostolic message of the Gospels? Second, what kind of history is it that these books claim to be recording for their first readers and for us today?

Talking about the study of the Four Gospels might suggest that we are to inspect these four books as separate, published works. But we must bear in mind that these books did not mysteriously fall down from heaven as completed wholes. They had to be written. That process—on its human side (as Christians, we want also to recognize that these little books form part of the total library of Holy Scripture, inspired by God)—requires that the authors had to give attention to assembling their materials and arranging them in some order. We know that this was their method of operation, for Luke tells us as much in the preface to his Gospel (Luke 1:1–4).

The question is: How much of the Gospel material was already in existence before the evangelists set about their task? With that question goes another: Can we today know anything about the processes that were at work shaping the materials before they came into the hands of a Matthew, a Mark, a Luke, or a John? There are other issues as well. One has to do with the purpose of the Gospel writers. This matter can only be settled once we have asked about their literary interdependence. While John presents a unique story, the first three Gospels (Matthew, Mark, Luke) share a likeness and are called collectively the Synoptic Gospels. To investigate how far the first three Gospels agree in their reporting and bear literary dependence versus how far they are individually distinctive is the province of the Synoptic Problem. These issues will be taken up in detail in later chapters.

Acts of the Apostles

Eusebius (ca. 264–339 ce) is traditionally regarded as the father of church history, and this description is justifiably endorsed by his ten books of Ecclesiastical History, which appeared in 325 ce. But there were earlier attempts at writing the history of the Christian church, and one could maintain that the author of the Acts of the Apostles set in motion the desire to record the outlines of the Christian church’s story for posterity to read.

Acts explores the three crucial decades (to use Floyd V. Filson’s phrase) from Pentecost, which marked the church’s beginning, to Paul’s arrival in Rome. These thirty years are intrinsically important and the record of events and their meaning is indispensable. Throughout, there are outstanding highlights that illumine the landscape of the rise, progress, problems, and influence of the Christian movement. Yet, Acts does not stand on its own; instead, we will see how it is really the second volume meant to complement the Gospel of Luke. While Luke is the story of the life of Jesus, who was anointed by the Spirit, Acts is the story of the ascended Lord Jesus whose presence is manifested in the life of the church that has also been anointed by the Spirit.

The Pauline Corpus of Letters

The words of St. Paul, said Martin Luther, are not dead words; they are living creatures, and have hands and feet.⁴ Generations of Christian people would agree with this picturesque remark. As the Christian faith encircles the earth, we may think of John Donne’s comments, Wheresoever I open St. Paul’s epistles I meet not words but thunder, and universal thunder, thunder that passes through the world.⁵ Paul’s words still speak to the human condition in a way that would be difficult to account for unless there was an intrinsic truth in his claim that he was uttering the words of God in the Spirit (1 Cor 2:10–16).

It is just as evident that there is a human side to Paul’s writing, since all the epistles emerge from a social matrix of life in the early communities and are composed against a historical background. To explore that setting and to try to read the historical Paul in his first century context is the aim of these chapters. But the task is not easy. For one thing, we have only Paul’s side of the conversation, except in those few instances where he quotes from the churches’ letters or alludes directly to his opponents’ reported notions. Another difficulty is that Paul is not a systematic writer.⁶ Among the characteristic features of his letters are emotional and pastoral outbursts—of indignation, reproof, counsel, and admonition. It requires great agility of mind to keep pace with the flow, often erratic and unexpected, of Paul’s pen.

Finally, there are the cultural, linguistic, conceptual, and theological barriers to be crossed as we in the twentieth century try to get on the wavelength of this man of the ancient world. To some of our contemporaries this is the problem that cannot be overcome. They see Paul as a man whose thoughts are dated by the age in which he lived⁷ or by the claim of others who regard Paul as the enemy of true religion.⁸ Their sentiments are captured in the words of the Pardoner in Sir David Lindsay’s Three Estates,

By him that bore the crown of thorn,

I would Saint Paul had never been born.

But we owe it to ourselves to exert our intellectual endeavor to understand Paul even in the face of these hurdles. To recall his influence on the great leaders of the church, such as Augustine, Martin Luther, John Calvin, John Wesley, and Karl Barth, is to be set on the inquiry as to what there was about this man that has made that influence so pervasive and so profound.

Paul, as a child of his age, addressed his contemporaries. Far more important, as prophet and apostle of the kingdom of God, he speaks veritably to all people of every age. Here is a claim worthy of putting to the serious test. Karl Barth writes, If we rightly understand ourselves, our problems are the problems of Paul, and if we be enlightened by the brightness of his answers, those answers must be ours.⁹

Other New Testament Writings

As there were brave men before Agamemnon, so there were Christians before Paul came on the scene. As contemporaries and immediate successors, they flourished as church leaders in the apostolic communities. Some of their names we know from Paul himself—Apollos, Barnabas, Aquila, Prisca, and Peter. There are other names known from the Acts of the Apostles, like Timothy. But it is remarkable that little evidence survives that gives independent attestation of these names. Instead, we have to place a higher value on what does survive in the epistolary writings of the New Testament even if tantalizing issues of authorship and provenance still haunt the inquirer and promise no final solution.

There are several blocks of epistolary literature outside the Pauline library. First, an anonymous document, called the Epistle to the Hebrews, reflects some special circumstances of its origin and its readership, who were presumably Jewish-Christians. Second, there is 1 Peter, a letter associated with the Apostle Peter. Also, there are the letters attributed to James and Jude, the brothers of Jesus. Fourth, the letter called 2 Peter enables us to look at trends in early Christianity as it moved into institutionalization and a more intense struggle with heresy. The term applied to this period is early Catholicism, to distinguish it from the age of the apostles. Finally, there are parts of the New Testament linked with the name of John. Whether he is the apostle, son of Zebedee, or a disciple of his also called John and surnamed the Elder, is an open question. He writes several letters to deal with theological, practical, and ecclesiastical concerns in the churches of his constituency. The Apocalypse (i.e., Revelation), as its name implies, belongs to a different literary genre, and was written by a person also called John to encourage and sustain the faith of persecuted Christians in Roman Asia.

Scripture: Authority and Canonicity

Authority in the Early Church

While the modern New Testament contains twenty-seven books, these books were not exclusive among first and second century writings in their claims to speak with God’s authority.¹⁰ A simple internet search or visit to the library will give access to the numerous writings contemporary with and shortly following the New Testament period.

The collection of these writings includes the Old Testament Apocrypha, which are a collection of Jewish writings (ca. third cent. bce to first cent. ce) found in Catholic, Orthodox, and ecumenical Bibles (including the original KJV). In addition, the New Testament Apocrypha are noncanonical writings connected to the origin of Christianity and includes the Gospel of Thomas. Further, the Pseudepigrapha (ca. third cent. bce to second cent. ce) are Jewish writings, not part of the Apocrypha and include numerous texts whose authors are fictionally attributed like 1 Enoch. Also, the Apostolic Fathers are a collection of early Christian writings (in the first to second cent. ce) and include the Didache, Epistle of Barnabas, Shepherd of Hermas, and Letters of Ignatius. Among these, some works, like the Didache and Gospel of Thomas, contain portions of material found in the New Testament, and may even be contemporary with some New Testament writings.¹¹

While there are a variety of books from this period, for the modern Christian, the question of canon is closed, since we have received a tradition nearly two thousand years old, and to reject any portion of that canon is to reject what it has meant to be a Christian. Nevertheless, it can be instructive to look at the process by which New Testament works were written, received, and ultimately accepted by the church.

All Christians acknowledge by profession the supreme authority of Jesus Christ, the head of the church and the savior of his body (Eph 5:23). Not surprisingly, the earliest confessions of faith known in the New Testament church proclaim this unrivaled lordship of Christ, both in personal allegiance proclaiming Jesus is Lord (Rom 10:9; 1 Cor 12:3) and in his cosmic authority over all created things (Phil 2:9–11; Rom 14:9; Rev 5:6–14). Included in the scope of this dominion is his control of his people, the church, which holds the central place within the whole rule of Christ.¹²

How was this authority exercised? How the will of the risen Christ was made known to the church in apostolic times? We may point to some data in the literature of the New Testament church. The Gospel narratives portray Jesus as an authoritative teacher whose words were with power (exousia, Mark 1:22; Luke 4:32). Jesus himself claimed to speak and to act with decisive authority (Matt 7:24–27), in such matters as his right to forgive sins (Mark 2:10), to cast out demons (Mark 1:27), to judge the temple (Mark 11:15–19), and to reinterpret the Jewish law (Matt 5:17–32).¹³

Two other less well-attested features of Jesus’s ministry are nevertheless significant for appreciating his authority in the early church, especially in its controversy with the Jews and its growing self-awareness as Messiah’s people. First, Ethelbert Stauffer claims that the formula I am (egō eimi, John 6:35; 8:12; etc.) is an allusion to the divine name and is an overt ascription of deity to the Johannine Christ.¹⁴ Secondly, Jesus claimed at his trial, as the Son of Man, to be the rightful occupant of the place at God’s right hand in heaven (Mark 14:62), and so to fulfill Ps 110:1 and Dan 7:9–14.¹⁵

The unique authority thus displayed made the early church aware that they were living in the age of Messiah’s rule. The exaltation and kingship of Jesus confirmed what was true if hidden in his earthly life, namely that he had come to be Israel’s Messiah and king, and was now exalted as head of the new people of God. His presence was known to his followers, who were called by his name, as they assembled in worship, particularly at his table, where they shared a common meal in remembrance of him.

Moreover, his Spirit, promised before his bodily presence was withdrawn, had come to recall to them what they needed to remember of his earthly ministry (John 14:16—18:26). That Spirit was actively at work in many ways, empowering their witness (e.g., Acts 1:8) and guiding their corporate and individual life. Acts 16:7 refers to the Spirit of Jesus as restraining the missionaries from entering the territory of Pontus-Bithynia. That phrase is unique in New Testament literature, but it shows eloquently how close was the association between the exalted Lord and the Spirit (cf. 2 Cor 3:17). In Acts 21:11, Agabus prefaces his admonition to Paul with, Thus says the Holy Spirit, which surely recalls the Old Testament prophetic authorization placed before oracles, Thus speaks Yahweh. This shows how divine guidance was attributed to the same Spirit who moved Israel’s prophets.

The mention of Agabus calls attention to early Christian prophecy as a medium through which the risen Lord communicated his mind to the church.¹⁶ An earlier reference to Agabus (Acts 11:28) showed him similarly as one especially gifted by the Spirit to predict the great famine in Judea, and perhaps Philip’s daughters (Acts 21:9) had the same gift. The use of prophesy (prophēteuō) in 1 Cor 11 and 14, however, demonstrates that predictiveness, or foretelling the future, was not the only concern of the prophet’s ministry. The immediate interest of the prophets at Corinth (similar to their Old Testament counterparts) was to reveal God’s will for God’s people. This matches the formal definition of the prophetic ministry in 1 Cor 14:3, which gives priority to the work of upbuilding (oikodomē) as the Lord’s purposes for the church are achieved. The blend of prediction and a timely contemporary message is seen in the letters of Rev 2–3, where the risen Christ is addressing his people through the prophet John (Rev 1:3; cf. the words of this prophecy, 22:7), who in turn is inspired by the Spirit (Rev 2:7, etc.).

The New Testament church thus lived in conscious awareness of the unseen yet real lordship of the risen Jesus, made known to it by the Spirit’s presence and leadership. The Spirit conveyed that presence by uniting believers in fellowship (koinōnia) with the Lord and with one another, and by inspiring the words and writing of prophets who claimed inspiration on the basis of Old Testament precedent. The chief source of the New Testament writings is the literature produced by the apostles and those who claimed an intimate association with the apostles.

The Apostles in the New Testament Church

Here we touch on the most important locus of authority in the primitive church: the apostles. "Apostle (lit. sent one," apostolos) occurs seventy-nine times in the New Testament, and is obviously a key term in early Christianity. From the linguistic researches of Karl Rengstorf, we can form a fairly clear picture of what this term meant in the New Testament period. In the words of Johannes Geldenhuys, who has harvested the gains of Rengstorf’s work, the apostles of Jesus were chosen by him to act as His authoritative representatives through whom He was to lay the foundations of His church. This description equally fits Paul, whose consciousness of being an apostle is essentially determined by his encounter with Jesus on the Damascus road.¹⁷

This consciousness was apparently unshared by any other in the church apart from those who belonged to the original apostolate. There are only four cases of Paul’s using apostle of persons other than himself or the Twelve (2 Cor 8:23; Phil 2:25; Rom 16:7; Gal 1:19), and in each the text is either irrelevant to this discussion or the use is non-technical, as in the instance of James, the Lord’s brother. The conclusion seems valid that, in the exact and unique sense of the term apostle, referring to one directly commissioned by the risen Lord as his special messenger and personal representative, only Jesus’s original apostles and Paul were appointed to the office. Indirect confirmation of this conclusion is found in the way Matthias was elected (Acts 1:15–26), in Paul’s claim to have seen the risen Christ (1 Cor 9:1), in the apostolic witness in Eph 2:20; 3:7–12; 4:11; and explicitly in Rev 21:14, which describes how the foundations of the city wall in the heavenly Jerusalem are inscribed with the names of the Twelve Apostles of the Lamb.

We may agree with T. W. Manson that this apostolic function was exercised once and for all and in a way that was not transmissible.¹⁸ But what was this precise function? We may note how the apostles and the gospel proclamation, called the kerygma (kērygma), are closely associated in the New Testament literature. Indeed, it would not be too much to affirm that apostleship (Acts 1:25; 1 Cor 9:2; Rom 1:5; Gal 2:8) is a part of the kerygma in the sense that apostolic witness to the risen Lord and fulfillment of his charge to them to make the gospel known are part of the commission they have received (e.g., the stories of Paul’s Damascus Road experience in Acts accentuate this call and commission). The uniqueness of the apostolate, however, is not to be sought in terms of witness and preaching, for the company of New Testament preachers extends far beyond the Twelve and Paul (e.g., Phil 1:12–18). Rather, it is in connection with the exercise of authority in the churches—in particular, the custodianship of the traditions, whether oral or written—that we must see their originality.

Paul believed his ministry to be clothed with an authority that none should gainsay.¹⁹ Second Thessalonians speaks of his commanding the Thessalonian church (3:4, 6), and he speaks even more forcefully in dealing with the recalcitrant group at Corinth (2 Cor 10:8; 13:10; cf. 1 Cor 4:21; 5:3–8). On this basis, he can hold himself forth as a pattern to be accepted and imitated (1 Cor 4:15–21; 11:1; 1 Thess 1:6).²⁰ In particular, Paul expects that his writings will be received as binding for the moral decisions his readers are called on to make, as well as determinative for the acceptance of the gospel message over against its spurious rivals (Gal 1:6–12; 2 Cor 11:4–15). The measure of concurrence his words are entitled to receive comes from the fact that he speaks on the authority and in the name of the risen Lord (1 Thess 2:13).

It cannot be without significance that Paul himself expected his congregations to read his letters in public worship (1 Thess 5:27) and that these letters would be passed around the churches (Col 4:16) with a view to their acceptance as authoritative literature (1 Cor 14:37), written by one who claimed the Spirit’s insight and inspiration (1 Cor 7:40). While much of the Pauline writing has survived and became canonical Scripture (2 Pet 3:15–16), some of his writings were lost (e.g., 1 Cor 5:9) and fourth century attempts to remedy the deficiency and enrich the Pauline canon, as in the so-called 3 Corinthians, produced only tendentious specimens.²¹

That the thirteen Pauline Epistles, which have survived, were treated with respect is shown by the witness of the later church. Second Peter 3:15–16 is a familiar New Testament attestation of their authority, also seen in such apostolic fathers as Clement of Rome who writes, Take up the epistle of the blessed Paul the apostle, who is distinguished from Apollos as a man approved in their sight (1 Clem. 47). Likewise, Ignatius states, I do not think myself competent . . . to give you orders like an apostle (Trall. 3.3), and I do not command you, as Peter and Paul did. They were apostles, I am a prisoner (Rom. 4:3). Also, Polycarp comments, For neither am I, nor is any other like unto me, able to follow the wisdom of the blessed and glorious Paul. . . . If you look diligently [at the letters he wrote to you], you shall be able to be built up unto the faith given to you (Phil. 3).

Pseudonymity

Traditionally, the criteria for canonical status of the twenty-seven books has been defended based upon apostolic authority, age, and content. Thus, the Gospel of Matthew, Johannine literature (the Fourth Gospel, 1–3 John, and Revelation), Petrine Epistles, and Pauline Epistles (plus Hebrews) have been defended as apostolic witnesses. Mark has been associated with Peter, and Luke was associated with Paul. James and Jude were both brothers of Jesus and leaders in the early church. This has often been contrasted with second and third century writings that falsely name their authors such as the Gospel of Thomas, Gospel of Peter, and Gospel of James. Eusebius’s History of the Early Church outlines much of the arguments regarding the inclusion and omission of writings based on these criteria.

Despite the traditional connection of books to named persons, it may come as a surprise to readers that the four Gospels, Acts, Johannine letters, and Hebrews actually make no authorship claims and are all anonymously written. Other books, like Revelation, James, and Jude, name their author, but since these are common names, there is uncertainty about the specific identity of John, James, or Jude. While the thirteen Pauline Epistles and the two letters of Peter, name their authors, scholars today debate the identity of the authors, particularly of Ephesians, Colossians, 2 Thessalonians, the Pastorals, and 1–2 Peter.²²

Modern scholarship has revisited the question of authorship by examining both the primary sources and the tradition regarding authorship. One such question immediately facing apostolic authority is the fact that the New Testament was written in Greek and only 10 percent of the population in the ancient world was literate. So, we must ask, to what extent would Galilean men (whose native language was Aramaic) know Greek, let alone have the competence to compose works in Greek? How likely would Peter or John as fishermen or James the brother of Jesus be able to compose Greek works? Others have examined both the style and content of works noting difference among writings. One proposed solution invokes the common use of a scribe, called an amanuensis, to compose these writings on behalf of the apostles.

Questions such as these led to the issue of "pseudonymity," which means to write using another person’s name, and a need to understand this phenomena within the first century context. Kurt Aland makes some important theoretical judgments on the subject of pseudonymity. He stresses how pseudonymity, if it is granted, does not lessen the authority of the message attributed to the apostolic author whose aegis is claimed. On the contrary, it is enhanced, since the writer believed that he or she shared in the same inspiration of the Spirit as his or her apostolic mentor, and he or she did not pretend to be his rival or substitute. The use of the apostle’s name is thus an appeal to higher authority, and the claiming of the venerable name is an index of humility on the writer’s part and an acknowledgment of the apostolic credentials of what he or she faithfully recorded.

If this explanation of what is usually referred to as pseudonymity fails to satisfy those who insist on taking literary attributions at their face value (e.g., Eph 1:1; 3:1; 2 Pet 1:1, 18), we may look to the Jewish Scriptures for precedent. For example, the oracles of the Hebrew prophets were most likely assembled by the prophets’ followers (cf. Isa 8:16), who took responsibility for publishing these directly inspired utterances under their teachers’ names. Yet, the final composition was not the prophets; rather, it was their pupils who felt able to employ the prophets’ names at the head of the recorded oracles (e.g., Isa 1:1). One of the most well-known scribes was Baruch (Jer 32:12–16; 36; 43:1–7; 45), who some scholars credit with editing portions of Jeremiah. Thus, the Old Testament prophets and their disciples provide a pattern of a particular disciple or a school of disciples publishing their master’s teaching using his name as an extension of his authoritative tradition. It was the school’s duty to ensure the accuracy and intent of publishing teaching under the authority of their teacher. So, we may consider the possibility of a school of John, school of Peter, or a school of Paul publishing works in their teacher’s name.

Klaus Koch cautions that the designation ‘pseudonymous’ should be used only with reservation. ²³ The disciple may be using the name of his teacher because the latter was thought to be still living in heaven and therefore his influence was effective in the present. The use of an honored name (like Paul or Peter) becomes tantamount to ascribing the writing to God or the heavenly Lord. Ultimately, the issue of pseudonymity can remind the modern reader that the book’s authority and significance are not rooted in the words of human authors, but rather, the books are the medium by which divine authority and message are conveyed. To claim that a book is pseudonymous should not lessen the book’s place in the canon nor its divine inspiration.

Apostolic Tradition

What about the apostolic traditions, which existed in oral form in the Pauline churches and are attested in references found in the Apostolic Fathers and later Christian writers?²⁴ Here we may cite 1 Clement 7.2, "Let us come to the glorious and venerable ‘rule’ (kanōn) of our tradition." The Epistle to Diognetus 11.6 speaks of the tradition of the apostles. The idea is also prominent in Irenaeus, who often uses tradition (paradosis; Lat. traditio [30x]; paradidōmi; Lat. trader [14x]), as well as Tertullian chiefly in his writings against Marcion, and also in Clement and Origen. Tradition(s) is a term attested in the New Testament, and we now turn to an examination of its usage.

Among the various usages of the verb for tradition (lit. to hand over, paradidōmi) the relevant ones for our purpose are those in which the verb has as its object some allusion to teaching. The noun form of tradition (paradosis) in the New Testament, which is in line with this verbal connotation, is used in the New Testament only of what is transmitted, not of the act of transmitting. Our attention, therefore, is drawn to references to the content of the tradition.

Of the thirteen places where the noun occurs, nine refer to rabbinic practice and the scribal tradition, which had been elevated to authority above the law itself. This tradition of the elders Jesus condemned (Matt 15:2, 3, 6; Mark 7:3, 5, 8, 9; cf. Gal 1:14). The point at issue is well described by Friedrich Büchsel,

The Pharisees regarded unwritten tradition as no less binding than the Law. . . . The Sadducees rejected it (Josephus, Ant.

13

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). So did Jesus. He agreed with the Pharisees that the good demanded of men [and women] is obedience to God’s commandment. As He saw it, however, men [and women] could not add to this commandment, since they were too seriously in conflict with God.²⁵

Tradition is also used in a positive sense. In these New Testament passages (1 Cor 11:2; 2 Thess 2:15; 3:6), it denotes Christian practices rather than Christian teaching, although other verses have reference to some body of truth without specifying exactly what this is (cf. Rom 6:17; 2 Pet 2:21; Jude 3, 20). Presumably, the latter existed in oral form, although the parallelism of by spoken word (dia logou) and by our written letter (di’ epistolēs hēmōn) is to be noticed in 2 Thess 2:15. These two phrases pinpoint the vexing problem of this discussion: how far, if at all, did there develop a relation between oral tradition and written authority in the early centuries of the church? Is it valid to speak of two sources of authority, with apostolic oral teaching surviving side by side with apostolic writings which later became recognized as canonical Scripture?

Two other important passages bear on the ultimate source of Christian tradition. First Corinthians 11:23 contains the key term I handed (paredōka) coupled with the complementary verb I received (parelabon). What Paul had received he saw as his duty to pass on to others. The origin of this tradition is given as from the Lord (apo tou kyriou), which apparently means that he is acknowledging the mediation of the church in the transmission of the tradition, with the living Christ as the one who stands behind it and is actively at work