Ratio et Fides: A Preliminary Intro-duction to Philosophy for Theology

By Robert E. Wood and Jude P. Dougherty

In the face of growing skepticism and relativism, "believe in reason" is the central message in Pope John Paul II's Fides et Ratio. Only by the two wings of reason and faith together can the human spirit soar. The current work, Ratio et Fides, is its philosophical counterpart. It is not a watered-down introduction but a "leading-into" the heart of philosophic thinking. Firmly rooted in the phenomenological description of an ordinary artifact, a mailbox, the book uses the principles involved in the description to examine key figures in the history of thought. We focus on three areas: the Soul, Morality, and God. We consider seven thinkers. Plato and Aristotle, who founded the tradition, were taken up by Augustine and Aquinas in developing their theologies. Descartes launched the distinctively modern tradition, culminating in Hegel's systematic presentation of the whole Western tradition, philosophical and religious. More recently, Heidegger approached that tradition in terms of its hidden ground in the Mystery of Being, recalling us to meditative thinking as the secular counterpart to prayer. Armed with this background, students will be able to approach with profit the Fathers of the Church and major theologians and philosophers, past and recent.

• Language: English
• Publisher: Pickwick Publications
• Release date: Oct 9, 2018
• ISBN: 9781498245920

Robert E. Wood

Robert E. Wood, chair and professor of philosophy at the University of Dallas, is editor of American Catholic Philosophical Quarterly and author of Martin Buber's Ontology and A Path into Metaphysics.

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RATIO ET FIDES

A Preliminary Intro-duction to Philosophy for Theology

Robert E. Wood

foreword by Jude P. Dougherty

9191.png

RATIO ET FIDES

A Preliminary Intro-duction to Philosophy for Theology

Copyright © 2018 Robert E. Wood. All rights reserved. Except for brief quotations in critical publications or reviews, no part of this book may be reproduced in any manner without prior written permission from the publisher. Write: Permissions, Wipf and Stock Publishers, 199 W. 8th Ave., Suite 3, Eugene, OR 97401.

Pickwick Publications

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paperback isbn: 978-1-5326-1957-1

hardcover isbn: 978-1-4982-4593-7

ebook isbn: 978-1-4982-4592-0

Cataloguing-in-Publication data:

Names: Wood, Robert E., 1934–, author. | Dougherty, Jude P., 1930–, foreword.

Title: Ratio et fides : a preliminary intro-duction to philosophy for theology / Robert E. Wood ; foreword by Jude P. Dougherty.

Description: Eugene, OR : Pickwick Publications, 2018 | Includes bibliographical references and index(es).

Identifiers: isbn 978-1-5326-1957-1 (paperback) | isbn 978-1-4982-4593-7 (hardcover) | isbn 978-1-4982-4592-0 (ebook)

Subjects: LCSH: Philosophy—History. | Philosophy, European. | Philosophy and religion. | Religion.

Classification: b72 .w66 2018 (print) | b72 .w66 (ebook)

The chapter on Hegel is reprinted with permission from the Ohio State University Press.

Manufactured in the U.S.A. 06/07/18

Table of Contents

Title Page

Foreword by Jude P. Dougherty

An Introduction

Fides et Ratio

Phenomenology of the Mailbox

Plato’s Republic

Aristotle: Soul, Ethics, Theology

Augustine’s Confessions

St. Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologiae

Descartes’s Discourse on Method

Hegel and Religion

Heidegger’s Thought

Concluding Overview

Bibliography

To my seminary students, past, present, and to come

FOREWORD

John Henry Newman, in a letter to his friend John Delgarins (dated October 1846), recounts a conversation he had with a Jesuit priest (whose name is not disclosed) at the Collegio di Propaganda. Newman asked the Jesuit about the status of Greek studies at the college, specifically whether the students read Aristotle. The Jesuit tells Newman that neither Aristotle nor St. Thomas is in favor in Rome, or for that matter in Italy. I asked him, writes Newman, what Philosophy they did adopt? The Jesuit said. "None, odds and ends, whatever seems best, like St. Clement’s Stromata. They have no Philosophy, facts are the great things, and nothing else, exegesis but not doctrine." He went on to say that many Jesuits privately were very sorry for this, but no one dared oppose the fashion.

That conversation took place one year after Newman had been received into the Catholic Church. In the same year we find Archbishop Gioacchino Pecci in Rome, and that may account for Newman’s remark, There is a latent power in Rome which would put a stop to the evil. The Jesuit may have misunderstood the remark for he shrugged his shoulders and said, The Pope can do nothing if the people do not obey him. Decades latter, Pecci would become Leo XIII. Within a year after being elected in 1878, Leo had named Newman a cardinal and the same year published his encyclical Aeterni Patris, promoting the study of St. Thomas. The encyclical endorsed a fledgling Thomistic movement and was to exercise considerable influence on Catholic higher education through most of the twentieth century. Both Newman and Leo recognized that the effectiveness of the Church, supernatural aids apart, depended on an enlightened and superior clergy, and both devoted considerable effort to the education of future priests.

Newman, for his part, was steeped in the Fathers of the Church, both Greek and Latin, and he knew the role that classical philosophy had played in their understanding of the Gospels. He wanted as much for the clergy of his day, even before he entered the Church. Leo, no less than Newman, venerated the Fathers whose assimilation of pagan philosophy he found prepared and smoothed the way to the faith. But Leo was confronted with the agnosticism and materialism that followed the Enlightenment repudiation of classical philosophy. Recognizing that philosophy can only be fought by philosophy, he turned to the doctors of the Middle Ages for assistance, and in the encyclical Aeterni Patris, wrote, The Faith can expect no more reliable assistance than it has already received from St. Thomas. Aeterni Patris, subsequently endorsed by Pius X in his motu proprio Doctoris Angelici, and by Pius XI in his encyclical Studiorum Ducem, stimulated an interest in classical and medieval philosophy and, in fact, produced a scholastic revival that enlisted scholars of the rank of Gilson, Mercier, Noel, Maritain, Pegis, Fabro, Garrigou-Lagrange, DeKoninck, Van Steenberghen, and Yves Simon, to name only a few. Thomas became the Doctor Communis of North American seminaries and colleges alike. Midwestern Thomism became a euphemism for programs of study that could be found in Toronto, Milwaukee, South Bend, St. Louis, Cincinnati, and points south. Not only Thomas but Bonaventure and Scotus were given a place in the curriculum of most Catholic institutions of higher learning. For many, to study Thomas also entailed some acquaintance with the Arab philosophers Avicenna and Averroes.

Benedict XVI, following the lead of his predecessors, has similarly stressed the importance of classical learning for an understanding of the Apostolic Fathers, who represent the faith as received in the first and second generation after the death of the apostles. The Fathers, as he presents them in his book, simply entitled The Fathers, are a lively bunch of intellectuals as they grapple with the truths presented in the Memories of the Apostles, as the Gospels were first called. To Benedict, it is clear that Athens prepared the way for the intellectual reception of the teachings of Christ. As the story unfolds in Benedict’s telling, the names flow by: Ignatius of Antioch, Justin, Philosopher and Martyr, Irenaeus, Clement, Origen, Tertullian, Cyprian, Eusebius, Athanasius, Cyril, Basil, the two Gregories, Ambrose, Jerome, and Augustine. Their extant writings are of major importance not only for the history of the Church but for an understanding of Western culture. Many of those writings have been amazingly preserved. The Fathers of the Church series, published in English translation by the Catholic University of America Press, numbers 117 volumes. Apart from the two great works of Augustine that have entered the Western literary canon, The Confessions and The City of God, we have more than three hundred letters of Augustine and almost six hundred of his homilies that through the centuries have served as models for other bishops and priests.

It is easy to detect in Benedict a great love for the Bishop of Hippo. The Holy Father speaks of his personal devotion and gratitude for the role he has played in my life as a theologian, priest and pastor. One can surmise that Benedict himself is following the example of Augustine. At one point in his career, Augustine informed his colleague, Bishop Evadius, of his decision to suspend his dictation of his books on De Trinitate "because they are too demanding and I think few can understand them; it is therefore urgent to have more texts which I hope will be useful to the many." Since the beginning of his pontificate, Benedict has published, one may say, delightful books accessible to the layman, on the Fathers, on Jesus of Nazareth, and on the Doctors of the Church, with more to come.

That brings me to the merits of the present volume by Robert E. Wood. Although prepared for a specific audience, namely, candidates for the diaconate in two Texas dioceses, it can be used as an introductory course in philosophy in any program of priestly formation. Clearly it partakes of the effort of Leo XIII and his successors to elucidate the rational nature of the Faith. The Catholic Faith is not a Kierkegaardian leap into the dark. As many of the Fathers believed it to be, it is both a continuation and fulfillment of the classical learning inherited from the Greeks and the Stoics. Wood speaks of the Wisdom of the Church and the need to explore the sources of that wisdom. He recognizes that it is the task of every generation to appropriate that wisdom while acknowledging its source. Wood, like John Paul II, believes that there can be multiple approaches at the philosophical level as the Church attempts to engage the modern mind. He finds in the work of Husserl and the phenomenological movement that he launched elements that enable the Catholic mind fruitfully to engage the contemporary intellectual. He is attracted to Bernard Lonergan and to Hans Urs von Balthasar because he finds them so engaged. It is to Wood’s credit that, like Gilson, he sees a unity to philosophical experience, but he never forgets that the Greeks and their medieval commentators over the centuries remain a constant source for modernity.

Jude P. Dougherty

Dean Emeritus, School of Philosophy

The Catholic University of America

AN INTRODUCTION

This is the Introduction to the book. The book itself is an intro-duction to philosophy for theology—i.e., it is not preliminary but structured to bring the reader into [Latin intro-ducere] the heart of the matter.

1.

Though this book had its origin in and for a Catholic context, I have approached it in a nonsectarian manner such that anyone can gain an introduction to philosophy from it, for or not for theology. Indeed, it begins with Pope John Paul II’s letter Fides et Ratio, which is not sectarian but is addressed to all people. The message is: In the face of widespread skepticism and relativism, Believe in Reason! His most memorable idea is that the human spirit soars on two wings, faith and reason. Either one without the other never gets off the ground but flutters around itself.

The current text was a response on the side of Reason. It was developed in a one-year long, two-credit course for the Deacon Candidates’ Program in the Diocese of Tyler, Texas, and also for the Diocese of Dallas. My intent was to construct a background text for reading classic sources with a view toward the students’ being able to read papal encyclicals, the documents of Vatican II, the Fathers and Doctors of the Church, and the most formative theologians of the twentieth century: Hans Urs von Balthasar, Karl Rahner, Bernard Lonergan, and, as a kind of devil’s advocate, Hans Küng. Though the people in the pews do not need to know theology beyond some preliminary level, those who lead the people, deacon’s as well as priests, need to be able to read the tradition of theology with profit, for they will be the preachers and guides to those in the pews. To that end, it is not enough to be able to repeat what the Church teaches, but, more important, to know why it teaches what it does.

Von Balthasar took the history of biblical understanding and Western philosophy, literature, and theology together as the field out of which he addressed current theological issues. Central to his work is a theological aesthetics and crucial for this work is Hegel’s aesthetics which he finds summarizing the whole tradition. Crucial also is Heidegger, whose project, von Balthasar claims, we (Catholic thinkers) must make our own. For Rahner, both Hegel and Heidegger are crucial to an understanding of Aquinas, and through that, to reawakening issues in contemporary theology. Lonergan’s thought is grounded in a kind of phenomenology of the field of experience and a careful reading of Aquinas, though he has also learned from Hegel and Kant in significant ways. The readings we select have these thinkers especially in view.

2.

I call this text an intro-duction, a leading into, with the hyphen indicating that it leads one into the heart of philosophy. I call it such because, unlike many introductory texts, it is not watered-down philosophy, often presented as a history of opinions. It is not about philosophy, but is an example of philosophy, and philosophy in a specific mode. The approach is through certain select highlights in the history of philosophy presented in the words of the thinkers themselves. But the approach is taken through the phenomenological method. That method describes various types of evidences and the modes of awareness having the evidence. It shows how to see for oneself is the only adequate basis for seeing the cogency of what the philosophers claim.

Because we are studying philosophy as preliminary to the study of theology for deacon candidates, the first text we chose is Pope John Paul II’s encyclical Fides et Ratio, on faith and reason. Here the pope exhorts contemporary culture to trust in the power of reason—in effect, to cultivate fides in ratio or ratio in fides and not fall into scepticism and relativism or biblicism and fideism. He exhorts thinkers not to abandon the attempt to develop a comprehensive view of things. And he lays stress again and again upon the autonomy of reason. The understanding of the faith depends upon the developed capacity of reason and gives to reason the further task of developing our understanding of revelation in theology. He points to the continual use of the independently developed philosophies of Plato and Aristotle by the Church Fathers and medieval Scholastic theologians. In general, he makes the case for mandating the study of philosophy for those preparing for ministry.

John Paul II developed his own thought through a study of phenomenology. Our second text is thus a short work in phenomenology entitled Phenomenology of the Mailbox: Much Ado about Nothing. It shows the various types of evidences involved in our everyday activities: the various features of differing modes of sensation, the different levels of awareness involved in attending to these modes, the functioning of systems of production and exchange involved in the postal system, speech and writing, the nature of language, as well as personal presence and absence, matters presupposed in all our dealings, everyday and scientific. The piece especially aims at recovering a reflective sense of the differentness of awareness from any externally given evidence. It is reflection upon awareness which drives the wedge into contemporary attempts to reduce the human being to externally combined bits of matter and human awareness to brain functions.

3.

Armed with the battery of evidences attended to phenomenologically, we then set about our reading of the tradition. Since the course meets only once a month, candidates are invited to read the whole of each text, although they will be expected to focus only upon particular parts of each. We begin with parts of Plato’s Republic, the most basic text in Western philosophy. The themes we focus upon are the moral virtues, the structure of the soul, the levels of knowing involved in the pursuit of the Good as Principle of the Whole, death, immortality and the judgment of the dead.

A chapter on Aristotle shows how he developed in relation to Plato, his teacher, and prepared the way for the incarnational view of Christian existence developed by Thomas Aquinas and brought forward in our own day by John Paul II in Theology of the Body. We focus upon the nature of the soul and its various functions, upon the virtues required for self-mastery and human coexistence, upon the fundamentally sociopolitical character of the human being whose rationality develops in and through language, and upon the way to the Unmoved Mover as Self-Thinking Thought.

We then go on to examine the way in which the two greatest Catholic theologians, Augustine and Aquinas, developed their theologies by employing Greek philosophy. Our next reading is thus from Augustine’s Confessions. Here the philosophic themes we focus upon are his assimilation of Neoplatonism which helped him in thinking of God and the soul in other than material terms, as well as the key notions of the restless heart, time, and memory.

Readings from Thomas Aquinas’s Summa theologiae show how Aquinas shifted the grounds for developing theology from basically Platonic thought to basically Aristotelian thought. The shift involved a view of embodiment as essential to the character of being human. The human being is not a spirit trapped in a body for a period, as Neoplatonists thought, but an essentially incarnate spirit destined by nature and grace for the resurrection. Embodiment is such a good thing that God himself became incarnate and prefigured our own resurrection. In this life God’s grace is mediated through the sacraments as material signs, most especially by the transformed bread and wine in the Eucharist. Aquinas’s approach entailed the principle that grace presupposes and perfects a rational nature.

René Descartes’s Discourse on Method is a short work that inaugurated distinctively modern philosophy. Like Plato he attempted to back off from the tradition in order to show the fundamental evidences available to reason. He developed a mode of thinking that involved a notion of body exhaustively treatable by scientific method and culminated in what became the view of the Clockwork Universe in modern physics. It entailed a dualism in human existence between a mechanized body and a separate substance mind/soul. Descartes set the conceptual framework for the way modern science has developed and the way body is considered today in natural science. He inaugurated the modern project by developing science for its practical application in medicine and technology.

G. W. F. Hegel presented a mode of thought that attempted to gather the various philosophic positions into a single System. He taught us to think in philosophy both historically and systematically. His System laid out the conditions—ontological, cosmic, historical, and personal—for the rationally free society. But he also taught us to think with constant attention to revelation. His own thought was rooted in his self-avowed Lutheranism. We have chosen selections from the introductions to his Lectures on the Philosophy of Religion and Lectures on the History of Philosophy.

Finally, we have selected a small text from Martin Heidegger presented as a Memorial Address to peasant villagers of his hometown in Messkirch in Bavaria. Heidegger attempted to get back to what he called the ground of metaphysics as first philosophy and to rethink the tradition from there. The ground of metaphysics lies in a sense of the encompassing Mystery that is brought to awareness through the kind of thinking awakened by the arts and that emerges from meditation on ultimate things, such as one’s own mortality. The tradition of philosophy is fueled by that but has not considered it as such. Heidegger saw each great philosophy as a way of revealing fundamental truths about our position in the whole scheme of things, but also simultaneously as a way of concealing what is revealed in other philosophies; and he especially focused upon the rootage of thought in the life-world, in everyday life. As we noted previously, von Balthasar claimed that today theology must make Heidegger’s project its own. In effect, this involves the rootage of theology, not only in philosophy, but also and especially in the life of prayer. The current work provides an introduction to each of the works selected as well as lists of questions for focus and discussion and suggestions for further reading.

4.

There is no such thing as philosophical reading; there is only philosophical rereading and rereading and rereading. The idea is to consider each claim within the context of the philosopher’s view of the Whole, but also to think of that in terms of reflection upon one’s own experience. So when reading one has to anticipate and recall, correcting one’s preliminary understanding in the light of what comes later. By this tacking between part and whole of the text and between text and experience, one gradually builds up a view of the Whole to which each philosopher directs us. It is upon the habits developed in this manner that theology essentially draws in thinking through revelation.

One way to read well is to respond regularly and reflectively to what is read. Students would do well to keep a reflective journal in which they develop reasoned reactions to what might especially strike them, positively or negatively, in the texts. In this way they will learn to think for themselves, following the paths laid out in the readings.

Finally, the texts and the introductory remarks are meant to be supplemented by a seasoned teacher who, through lecture and discussion, can help bring to life what might otherwise remain only the dead letter.

* * * *

Two of the chapters have already appeared in print: Phenomenology of the Mailbox in Philosophy Today, Hegel and Religion in my Placing Aesthetics: Reflections on the Philosophic Tradition. They are reprinted with permission and with some modification.

FIDES ET RATIO

The human spirit soars on two wings, reason and faith.

—Fides et Ratio, John Paul II

READING

John Paul II, Fides et Ratio: On the Relationship of Faith and Reason (Boston: Pauline, 1998). You are invited to read the entire work, but you are expected to have read the following sections:

Introduction: 1, 3–5

I. Revelation: 12, 15

II. Credo ut Intelligam: 16–19

III. Intelligo ut Credam: 26, 30–33

IV. Faith and Reason: 36, 38–40, 43, 45–46, 48

IV. Magisterium: 49, 51–52, 55–56, 62

V. Philosophy and Theology: 64–68, 71–73, 75–77, 79

VI. Current Requirements and Tasks: 81, 83, 85, 86–90, 97, 106

1.

The epigram to Fides et Ratio presents an image that governs Pope John Paul II’s thought: Faith and reason are like two wings upon which the human spirit rises to the contemplation of truth. The image is suggestive: with one wing a bird cannot take off but only flutters around in a circle, pivoting around itself. One wing—faith alone or reason alone—gets one nowhere in the greater scheme of things. Fideism or rationalism are the extremes to be avoided. But there is also a third option to be avoided: rejection of both faith and reason.

In this encyclical John Paul II addresses the contemporary intellectual situation. He finds currents of materialism, scientism, positivism, phenomenalism, historicism, subjectivism, relativism, skepticism, agnosticism, atheism, evolutionism, pantheism, nihilism, and fideism, as well as, linked to fideism, biblicism and radical traditionalism.

Materialism is a position that claims to be the upshot of scientific development: everything is reducible to elementary particles that combine and separate according to invariant laws. Human awareness is wholly governed by brain-functioning (Faith and Reason, #80, p. 101; henceforth 80/101). It is also called reductionism. It appears as evolutionism insofar as it sees no link between matter and spirit but reduces the latter to the former. Materialism is linked to positivism. The pope also calls it scientism (88/109), which claims that our only knowledge is sensory (46/62). It is also linked to instrumentalism, which the pope sees as in turn linked to pragmatism (89/110–11), which holds that through science we can know how to develop the means to our ends without any ability to assess ends (47/63). Phenomenalism is broader than positivism because what appears is more than sensory, for example, our own awareness; but phenomenalism denies knowledge of ultimates beyond phenomena (54/71; 83/105).

Relativism is the generic position that denies all absolutes (5/14; 80/101). Its two variants are subjectivism and historicism. Subjectivism claims that all opinions and especially all values are merely relative to individual preference. Certain brands of existentialism make that claim with regard to values. Historicism broadens the claim to cover cultures and epochs: truth and goodness are determined by culture or the historical time frame within a culture and there