The Eucharist and World Hunger: Socio-Theological Exploration

By Izunna Okonkwo

Hunger is a menace in different parts of the globe. It has more unnatural than natural causes. Though efforts have been made towards alleviating its causes and consequences, more actions still need to be taken for its genuine alleviation and eventual eradication in the world. For Joseph Grassi, painful hunger is a daily occurrence that must be countered by ongoing effective programs that enter into the lives of every Christian. Such position not only recognises the frequency and excruciating nature of hunger but also suggests that Christians and other religious groups have a very important role to play in order to eradicate hunger and its devastating effects. This book explores the nuances of hunger, its causes, dimensions and approaches, as well as its connection to the Eucharist. It argues that hunger can be eradicated and that the Eucharist stands out as a veritable model.

• Language: English
• Publisher: Xlibris UK
• Release date: Dec 21, 2011
• ISBN: 9781465391735

Izunna Okonkwo

Izunna Okonkwo is a priest of the Archdiocese of Onitsha, Nigeria. He holds a Master’s degree in Religious Studies, Master of Advanced Studies degree in Theology and Religion; and Licentiate in Sacred Theology (S.T.L) from the Katholieke Universiteit Leuven (KUL), Belgium. He recently obtained his doctoral degree (PhD) in theology (STD) from the same university. He researches on the transformative nature of religions, especially Christianity and African Traditional Religion. He has presented some of his research fi ndings as papers at international conferences and published articles in international journals. “The present book deserves praise for its synthetic qualities. The author has examined an impressive amount of sources and has come up with a wellinformed and solid vision. Izunna Okonkwo’s vision is that the Eucharist makes and should make a difference in the eradication of hunger. After and through this work no theologian can ever call this into doubt or content him- or herself to remain silent about this issue.” – Prof. Joris Geldhof – October 2011, Faculty of Theology and Religious Studies, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Belgium.

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Copyright © 2011 by Izunna Okonkwo.

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CONTENTS

Acknowledgements

Dedication

Foreword

General Introduction

Chapter 1

The Problem of Hunger and Its Devastating Effects

Introduction

1.1. Stating the Question

1.1.1. Quest for the Meaning of Hunger

1.1.2. Hunger: Food Scarcity in the World of Plenty?

1.2. An Investigation of Causes of Hunger

1.2.1. Population Explosion

1.2.2. War and Conflict

1.2.3. Militarism

1.2.4. Poverty

1.2.5. Political Oppression/Bad Governance

1.2.6. Injustice

1.2.7. Economic Injustice

1.2.8. Environmental Crises

1.2.9. Capability Deprivation and Low Income

1.2.10. Illiteracy

1.2.11. Natural Disaster

1.3. The Present Reality of Hunger in the World

1.3.1. From the Northern Perspective

1.3.2. From the Southern Perspective

1.3.2.1. Asia

1.3.2.2. South America

1.3.2.3. Africa

1.4. Secular Approaches to the Problem of Hunger

1.4.1. Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO)

1.4.2. United Nations International Children Education Fund (UNICEF)

1.4.3. World Food Conference and World Food Summit

1.4.4. International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD)

1.4.5. The Millennium Development Goals

1.4.6. Genetic Modification of Food

1. 5. Approaches to the Problem of Hunger in the Catholic Social Teaching: A Survey

1.5.1. Rerum Novarum, 1891: The First Social Encyclical

1.5.2. Quadragesimo Anno, 1931

1.5.3. Gaudium et Spes, 1965: The Dawn of a New Era

1.5.4. Populorum Progressio, 1967

1.5.5. Sollicitudo Rei Socialis, 1987

1.5.6. United States Catholic Bishops—Economic Justice for All: A Pastoral Letter on Catholic Social Teaching and US Economy

1.5.7. Critical Assessment of Ecclesiastical Approaches to Hunger

Concluding Remarks

Chapter 2

The Underdeveloped Connection Between the Eucharist and Hunger in the Sources and Tradition of Theology

Introduction

2.1. Biblical Types and Metaphors Applied to the Eucharist

2.1.1. Old Testament: Eucharist Prefigured?

2.1.1.1. The Passover

2.1.1.2. Manna in the Desert

2.1.2. New Testament: Christic Era

2.1.2.1. Jesus’s Public Ministry

2.1.2.2. Miracle of Loaves

2.1.2.3. The Last Judgement Typology

2.1.2.4. The Last Supper

2.1.3. New Testament: Apostolic Period

2.1.3.1. The Early Christians: Agape Meal

2.1.3.2. The Lord’s Supper

2.1.3.3. Pauline Theology of the Eucharist

2.2. The Fathers of the Church on Hunger and the Eucharist: A Selection

2.2.1. Justin Martyr

2.2.1.1. Concern for the Hungry

2.2.1.2. Tribute to the Trinity

2.2.1.3. Celebration of the Lord’s Day

2.2.2. Clement of Alexandria

2.2.2.1. Fraternal Meal of Christians

2.2.2.2. Eucharist: Unique Sacrifice

2.2.3. Tertullian

2.2.3.1. Eucharist: Bond of Love

2.2.3.2. The Supper of God

2.3. Thomas Aquinas

2.3.1. Thomas Aquinas on the Mystery and Practice of Sacraments

2.3.2. Thomas Aquinas on the Eucharist

2.4. The Council of Trent

2.4.1. Background and Definition on Sacraments in General

2.4.2. Trent and the Sacrament of the Eucharist

2.5. ‘Rediscovering’ Eucharistic Theology: Magisterium

2.5.1. The Constitution on the Sacred Liturgy: Sacrosanctum Concilium

2.5.1.1. Clarion call for Aggiornamento (Renewal)

2.5.1.2. Aggiornamento in Liturgy

2.5.1.3. Table of the Word and Table of the Eucharist: Worship and Ethics in Eradicating Hunger

2.5.2. The Constitution on the Church in the Modern World: Gaudium et Spes

2.5.3. Dogmatic Constitution on the Church: Lumen Gentium

2.5.4. On the Mystery and Worship of the Eucharist: Dominicae Cenae

2.5.5. On the Eucharist and the Church: Ecclesia de Eucharistia

2.5.5.1. The Eucharist as Source of Spiritual Nourishment

2.5.5.2. The Eucharist as a Community-builder: Koinonia

2.5.6. Synod of Bishops on the Eucharist

2.5.7. Post-synodal Apostolic Exhortation on the Eucharist: Sacramentum Caritatis

2.6. ‘Rediscovering’ Eucharistic Theology: Liturgy

2.6.1. Liturgy: Covenant of Social Justice

2.6.2. Eucharist: Sacrament of Social Justice?

2.6.2.1. The Eucharist and Ecological Crises

2.6.2.2. Words: Creation and Institution of the Eucharist

2.6.2.3. Substance: Matter Being Used in Sacraments

2.6.2.4. Eucharist, Ecology, and the Problem of Hunger

2.6.2.4.1. The Action of Taking and Blessing

2.6.2.4.2. The Action of Breaking

2.6.2.4.3. The Action of Giving

2.7. ‘Rediscovering’ Eucharistic Theology: Hermeneutics

2.7.1. David Power: Living the Eucharist

2.7.1.1. Indispensability of Liturgical Celebration

2.7.1.2. Situating the Communion Table

2.7.2. Louis-Marie Chauvet: Plea for a Symbolic Order

2.7.2.1. Sacraments in Modernity

2.7.2.2. Sacraments: Symbols as Matters of Function

2.7.3. Leonardo Boff: Towards a Narrative Theology

Concluding Remarks

Chapter 3

The Emergence and Nature of African Theology and Its Emphatic Silence on the Connection between the Eucharist and Hunger

Introduction

3.1. The Concept of African Theology

3.2. The Context of African Theology

3.3. Evolution and Characteristics of African Theology

3.4. Essential Trends in African Theology in Relation to the Eucharist and the Problem of Hunger

3.4.1. Phases of African Christianity

3.4.2. Liberation Theology

3.4.2.1. A Brief History of Liberation Theology

3.4.2.2. Liberation Theology in Latin America

3.4.2.3. Liberation Theology in Africa

3.4.3. Inculturation

3.4.3.1. Understanding Inculturation

3.4.3.2. Eucharist and Inculturation

3.4.3.3. Hunger and Inculturation

3.5. A Dialogue with Some African Theologians

3.5.1. Bénézet Bujo

3.5.1.1. Bujo’s Contextual Theology

3.5.1.2. Eucharist: Bujo’s Contextual Approach

3.5.1.3. The Church as Family of God

3.5.2. Elochukwu Eugene Uzukwu

3.5.2.1. Church: An Agent of Transformation?

3.5.2.2. The Church: Family of God

3.5.3. Patrick Chibuko

3.5.3.1. Inculturation in the Liturgy

3.5.3.2. Holy Family: Model of Church as a Family

3.5.3.3. Ite Missa Est: A Missionary Imperative

3.5.4. Oliver A. Onwubiko

3.5.4.1. Ujamaa: Locus Theologicus of African Theology?

3.5.4.2. Communalism and Solidarity: Egbe bere Ugo bere (the Eagle-and-Kite Principle)

3.5.4.3. Missionary Ecclesiology: Communion

Concluding Remarks

Chapter 4

Solidarity and Commensality: An African Eucharistic Model

Introduction

4.1. Evangelisation of Africa and the Nigerian (Igbo) Sociocultural Background

4.1.1. Focus on Exploration: Africa ‘Discovered’

4.1.2. Focus on the Colonising Mission

4.1.3. Focus on the Early Evangelising Mission and Church Strategies in Africa

4.1.4. Missionary Strategies

4.1.4.1. Catechesis

4.1.4.2. Education

4.1.4.3. Charity and Health Care System

4.2. Pastoral Chances Approached from a Eucharistic Model: South East Nigeria

4.2.1. Preliminary Clarifications

4.2.2. Culture of Life: Ndubuisi

4.2.2.1. The Sacredness of Life: Igbo Perspective

4.2.2.2. Respect for Life vis-à-vis the Eucharist and Hunger

4.2.3. African Communalism

4.2.3.1. Unity in Solidarity

4.2.3.2. Sharing

4.2.3.3. Community Living

4.2.4. Hospitality

4.2.5. Extended Family: Solidarity and Communion Paradigm

4.2.6. From Extended Family to the Ujamaa

4.3. Igbos (of Nigeria), Concept and Pracitice of Onye Aghana Nwanne Ya: Form of Communalism?

4.3.1. The Eucharist and African Communalism and Commensality

4.3.2. Eucharistic Communion and Meal Sharing in Igbo Land

4.3.2.1. Eucharist and Communalism in Inculturation

4.3.2.2. Eucharist and Meal Sharing: Ethics of Communion and Service

4.4. Evaluation of Prevalent Pastoral Challenges

4.4.1. Eucharistic Adoration, Worship, and Practice

4.4.2. Justice, Development, and Peace Commission

4.4.3. Feed the Poor and the Hungry Apostolate

4.4.4. Priestcrafting in (the Apostolate) Mission

4.4.4.1. Communal/Systemic Priestcrafting

4.4.4.2. Ministerial/Professional Priestcrafting

4.4.5. Proliferation of Healing Ministries

4.4.6. Commercialisation of the Sacraments

4.5. Towards an Afro-Eucharistic Attitude in the Third Millennium

4.5.1. Eucharistic Communion and the Problem of Hunger

4.5.1.1. Communalism of all the Faithful or Fragmented Fraternity?

4.5.1.2. Religious Life and Communalism

4.5.2. Eucharistic Communion Reorientation

4.5.2.1. Reorientating the Clergy and the Religious

4.5.2.2. Reorientating the Laity

Concluding Remarks

General Conclusion

Selected Bibliography

Articles In Books

Articles In Journals

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to express my profound gratitude to my Local Ordinary, Most Rev. Valerian Okeke, for approving my studies at Katholieke Universiteit Leuven (KUL), Belgium; and for his immeasurable support. To my PhD project promoter, Professor Joris Geldhof who was amazingly supportive, uniquely mentored me in clear and systematic ways of researching and theologizing; and wrote the foreword to this book I say, I am immensely grateful. My sincere gratitude also goes to erudite professors in the Faculty of Theology, KUL. Their scholarly lectures have really given me a lot of insights into a wide range of issues, especially, in the domain of theology and religious studies. My appreciation also goes to Professors Reimund Bieringer, Marc Steen, Yves De Maeseneer (KUL), and Francis Anekwe Oborji (Pontifical Urban University Rome) who, as members of my PhD dissertation reading committee and examination board, proffered critical and helpful evaluation. Thanks to you Professor (emeritus) Lambert Leijssen. Your schorlarly guidance as my Master of Religious Studies and Master of Advanced Studies in Theology and Religion dissertations’ supervisor is inestimable. I wish also to acknowledge with thankfulness the assistance and cooperation of the staff of KULeuven Faculty of Theology and Religious Studies Secretariat and Library.

My indebtedness also goes to my late father, Joseph Okonkwo who triggered the initial quest for knowledge in me. Thanks to you my mother, Ezinne Roseline Okonkwo; my siblings Engr Osita, Dr. Obiora, Chukwuma, Arinze, Oyiboka, Christy, Augoo, Gloria (died 2009); and inlaws Barr Obi Okaro, Ifeoma, Chigozie, and Uche, for your financial, material and emotional support especially during the period of my studies in Belgium. Joeben Onyia, I cannot thank you enough for your unflagging phenomenal support and encouragement. I am profoundly grateful to you Dirk Van den Bossche, your wife Anne, and your children Julie and Charlie for your support and hospitality.

My gratitude and indebtedness also go to other friends and acquaintances whose academic discussions, neighbourliness and fraternity have significantly influenced me in the course of my research. I am particularly grateful to Doctors Celestine Okonkwo, Peter Uzochukwu, Patrick Unaegbu, Collins Ojene, Humphrey Anameje, Paschal-Paul Okeke, Bartholomew Ugochukwu, Tobias Okoro, Raymond Aina, Ignatius Edet, Kenneth Obiekwe, Gregory Umunna, Gregory Obanado, Christian Okwuru, Angelo Dos Santos Cardita, Duncan Wielzen, Raymond Madueke, Celestine Chigbo, Emmanuel Afunugo, Patrick Okafor, Hilary Ezenwa, Patrick Omutah, Ferdinand Odigbo, Anselm Ofordum, Jude Umeh, Sylvanus Nnoruka, Francis Akwue, Christopher Ifenatuorah, Marius Obiagwu, Linus Edogwo, Patrick Chibuko, Emmanuel Omanukwue, Eloka Nwolisa, Kitt Emetarom, John Ahukanna, Antonette McCoach, Thomas Fenlon and Lee Stuart. Deserving my gratitude also are members of Professor Joris Geldhof’s research group, for thought provoking scholarly discussions, lectures, excursions and seminars we had together.

I thank in a special way Most Rev. Mario Joseph Conti, Archbishop of Glasgow, Scotland, for offering me the opportunity for pastoral experience and development. To share in my gratitude also are priests and laity of Onitsha (Nigeria) and Glasgow Archdioceses in whose midst I have exercised my priestly ministry. My gratitude also goes to you, Peter Smith, Tom White, Chris McElroy, Joe Walsh, Allan Cameron, Hugh Bradley, Brian McNaught, Paul Murray, Tom Monaghan, John Tormey, Tom Kilbride, David Wallace, Joe Burke, Casmir Nnubia, Too and Oby Ifionu, Jude and Ngozi Edochie, Engr Pat and Funke Igwilo, Hon. Eze Echesi, Hon. Ken Nwabueze. Others are Leo Mozie, Jude Onyeka, John Uzuakpundu, Thaddeus Umaru, Anthony Onyekwe, James Ikeatuegwu, Livinus Mmaduadichie, Michael Muonwe, Amadasu Idahosa, Martin Ichoku, Benjamin Ezulike, Joachim Lechukwu, Nnaemeka Ezeokeke, Law Mmaduewesi, Francis Chukwuma, Ambrose Anene, Anthony Udechukwu, Luke Ibe, Sanctus Ibe, Stanley Anaedo (died 2009), Basil Ekwunife, Linus Iloegesi, Peter Maigari, Jerry and Franca Aniaka, Ikechukwu Enemuoh, Jim and Pat Reilly, Eddie and Mary Gilhooley, Philip and Mary Coonan, James and Marilyn Docherty, and Geralyn McGarvey for your various roles in the realization of this work.

To all other friends and acquaintances whose names were not mentioned I say, your contributions and solidarity are sincerely appreciated.

DEDICATION

In loving memory of my late father Joseph (+2004) and sister Gloria (+2009)

FOREWORD

The starting point of this book is without any doubt a puzzling problematic: How can Christians cherish ‘eating’ and a ‘meal’ as the highest expression of their religion if so many people are starving? What can the Eucharist mean in contexts characterized by extreme forms of hunger, such as, e.g., famines, but also in situations of individual persons faced with extreme poverty and malnutrition? Is the very center of the Christian sacramental order, the celebration of the Eucharist, able to do something about? Can it really bear meaning and have impact in such contexts? Which resources are entailed in the Eucharist, both in its essence, forms, and enacted celebrations, so that Christians can collaborate to eradicate hunger? Evidently, these questions touch on the very core of the theological enterprise.

Given the nature of these problems, it is not illogical that one would never surpass the level of mere moral designation. It is of course ethically unacceptable that people (continue to) suffer from hunger, especially if the causes of it are removable, but to do genuine theology it is necessary that a certain distance is respected. The author of the present book has taken such a distance, which enabled him to reflect thoroughly about the transformative potential of the Eucharist. Taking a distance, moreover, does by no means imply that one is not committed. To the contrary, the author is really committed to the case he makes. That has a lot to do with his personal background. He was born and raised in South-East Nigeria at a time which bore the traces of a devastating war and famine. Hence there is no doubt about the existential ties with which he is connected to the subject which he dealt with in his doctoral research, of which this book is the fruit.

The volume is clearly structured in four chapters. In the first chapter the author explores the complex reality of hunger and its causes. He relies on what has been said about this in comprehensive documents from, among other organizations, the United Nations and the social teaching of the Catholic Church. The way in which the author emphasizes the specificity of physical hunger is particularly powerful. For he has neither spiritualized the matter nor contextualized it in such a way that it becomes unidentifiable. Such strategies ultimately tend to look away from real, physical, bodily hunger, which is indeed a harrowing problem and an important challenge for contemporary theologiy alike. The second chapter is in a way the central part of the study. The author surveys the sources of theological discourse and basically asks: what has been said about the connection between hunger and the Eucharist in the Bible, the works of the Church Fathers, the history of theology, the liturgy, by the magisterium, and contemporary general sacramental theologians? The conclusion of his survey is surprisingly – or unsurprisingly, that depends on the perspective one adopts – disenchanting and disappointing. As a matter of fact, theologians are called to do more in this respect. For the connection between the Eucharist and hunger is actually largely un(der)developed.

Therefore, the author courageously tried to set up his own case. As an African theologian he delved into the tradition of African theology and soon came up with another insight: not much has been said about the Eucharist and its transformative power to alleviate or eradicate hunger there either, even if its major axes turn around the issues of liberation and inculturation. That is the essence of the third chapter. In the fourth chapter, then, the author did not refrain from developing his own point of view. He argues that African cultures and Igbo culture in particular dispose of authentic resources to view the Eucharist as a call to commensality. That means that everyone, without exception, is invited to the festive meal of the Lamb, of Christ and his Bride the Church. But, in order to make this possible (and real), the Church is called to ruin every obstacle which hinders the real sharing of the Church in the glory of her Lord. That is how the Eucharist can and should transform human societies and cultures, so that not only hunger but also its very causes are definitively eradicated.

The present book deserves praise for its synthetic qualities. The author has examined an impressive amount of sources and has come up with a well-informed and solid vision. Izunna Okonkwo’s vision is that the Eucharist makes and should make a difference in the eradication of hunger. After and through this work no theologian can ever call this into doubt or content him—or herself to remain silent about this issue.

Joris Geldhof – October 2011

Faculty of Theology and Religious Studies

Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Belgium

GENERAL INTRODUCTION

Preamble

Hunger is a serious and, at the same, a topical problem. It pervades humanity in different regions of the world. African history is punctuated by more or less peculiar events that seem to be unique. These include colonisation, racism, gender discrimination, hunger, HIV/AIDS, etc. With globalisation, which has linked the world into a global village, rapid industrial revolution, world politics, and global market are forces that weigh heavily on the African continent. As the gap between the rich and the poor widens, the problems of hunger and poverty become acute. These occurrences pose challenges not only in the civil realm but also to the Church in her pastoral mission.

The Eucharist is believed, especially by Christians, to occupy a central locus in the Church’s life and mission. It is our contention that a proper understanding of the Eucharist will provide a way forward in addressing the issues related to human hunger.¹ As such, its significance requires consideration in an attempt to investigate various problems that human beings have to confront in our own time. But the problem of hunger has not been given the attention it deserves. This research project concerns itself, in the first instance, with an investigation into phenomenon and the harrowing problem of hunger. In second instance, it looks at a genuine Christian (Catholic) Eucharistic worship and practice as a possible model for eradicating hunger in the world. We do this (not exclusively) with the intention that it will be a contribution to theology, by joining in the clarion call for ‘[a] spiritual reform to give new life to the mystical dimension, and a rethinking of the sacraments in view of giving them an existential dimension, and anchoring them to new life’.² In this effort, an understanding which relates the vertical and horizontal dimensions of the Eucharist becomes particularly inevitable.

There is persistence of hunger in the midst of abundant resources. While some people are well fed and overfed, others are perishing in hunger and lack. If it is brought within the Christian symbolism (with particular reference to Catholicism), the paradox is reinforced by the fact that ‘both groups of people join together in the breaking of the Eucharist’.³ One may expect that in Christian churches, made up of the poor and the rich, the Supper of the Lord properly understood and applied could overcome all differences.⁴ Human beings are confronted with various destabilising conditions at different moments in history, so often caused by an unjust system. This may be a result of war, plague, natural disaster, sickness, etc. In our time, the ravaging effects of hunger in some parts of the world make some of these suffering conditions glaring in significance. It is easily argued that these scourges have a long history; the reality is that they demand urgent attention and solution today. I would stick the attention to hunger. Some of the questions that keep coming up are, Is hunger caused by food shortage or insufficiency? How can food security be ensured for all human beings? Can there be a solution to world hunger? The nature of above questions suggests that theologians are also obliged to address them.

Hunger violently drags its victims into indecent actions. Instances include prostitution, migration (which at times are illegal and demeaning), and armed robbery. The New Testament accounts for how the disciples of Jesus plucked corn in a farmland, and David, with his retinue, ate the bread reserved for priests in the face of the torturing situation of hunger (Mark 2: 23–26). Jesus, during his earthly ministry, showed love and concern to the oppressed and hungry, as we see in the miracle of loaves. His miracles of loaves and the Last Supper with his disciples are, perhaps, pointers to his closeness and kind-heartedness to those who are in need of assistance and love. While at Supper, Jesus blessed and shared bread and wine with his followers and instructed them to celebrate the same meal of love in his memory. By this, Jesus gave an added meaning and significance to the Jewish Passover meal (which marks the Jewish exodus and liberation from the Egyptian captivity). Hence, Jesus’s Last Supper celebrates God’s act of liberation and redemption that was to be accomplished in his suffering, death, and resurrection.

Although both have traits of liberation, the Last Supper understood by Christians as the basis for the Christian Liturgy has remained a reference or model for dealing with social injustice.⁵ In the Eucharist, there exists an act of hospitality, which emanates from love and which could be employed in addressing various ills of the society.⁶ This principle seems central to communal life and experience of the early Christian community that assembled after Christ’s resurrection. Tissa Balasuriya noted that perhaps ‘that is why the early Christians were so acceptable to many, especially the poor, and so detested by some of the powerful, particularly the exploiters’.⁷ As it is, we have begun to read in the contemporary theological discussions, the suggestions of early ‘Christian socialism’, that the ‘social consciousness of the early Christians was related to the Eucharist’.⁸ Noel O’Sullivan corroborates Balasuriya’s stance: ‘Celebration of the Eucharist is not a disembodied exercise: it must take account of what is happening in the community. The early Eucharists, as recounted in the Acts of the Apostles, knew how to connect liturgy and life. There was never anyone in want in their communities’.⁹ Yet the alleged early ‘Christian socialist model’ knows that it has to deal with greed, typified in the case of the couple Ananias and Saphira (see Acts 5: 1–11).

Of no mean problem is St Paul’s reproach, unworthy of the name, Lord’s Supper—a gathering where some go hungry while others go drunk (1 Cor. 11: 21). Later, the event metamorphosed from a ritual meal to a liturgical celebration. Even at that, it has remained at the centre of lives and activities of Christians. The Catholic perspective is that ‘in the Eucharist Jesus refreshes his people with the bread of angels, the true manna that comes from heaven which alone bestows life that will last forever’.¹⁰

The Church perpetuates the memorial of Jesus in the Eucharist. In this sacramental action, the Church experiences the high point of her calling—the mission to witness to Christ event. Christ, who—according to St. Paul—reconciled all humanity to God through his death (see Rom. 5: 10). This mission may be seen as a communication of what God has given to believers, and the world at large, in the Eucharist. In this regard, it might be inadequate for the Eucharist to ‘be isolated as an act of devotion, but must be seen as the center of Christian life [worship and mission]’.¹¹ Here life is to be understood in a generic sense. The Eucharist should influence the entire Christian way of life in encounters with one another.

The Second Vatican Council, in its liturgical reforms, threw more light on the relevance of the Eucharist in the Church’s life and worship. This renewal gave rise to active participation by all the faithful. In recent times, the hermeneutics of the theology of the Eucharist has seen the light of the day as a result of it. It becomes problematic when the ‘Eucharistic experience’ is dichotomised from the practical experience of the worshipping community.¹² However, such seems to be the case in our world, especially in Africa, even in the face of a teeming Christian population.

Besides hunger and climate change are two major complex but interrelated problems that today ravage large parts of the world. They are harsh realities, threatening human and environmental sustainability. Besides, ‘all have the right to life, to bodily integrity, and to the means which are suitable for the proper development of life, these are primarily food, clothing, shelter, best medical care, and finally the necessary social services’.¹³ It is essential for human beings to eat in order to live. Denying people the right to food is an abnormality and is generally perceived as a fundamental injustice. Various churches regard feeding the hungry as one of the corporal works of mercy. The Church’s approach seems to be merely in the realm of charity. Paradoxically, however, in the celebration of the sacrament of the Eucharist, the source and summit of her life and mission (Lumen Gentium 11 ), a meal with bread and wine stands out as the most crucial symbol. Therefore, the crucial question in this dissertation is, Can liturgy, in particular the Eucharist, play a transformative role in the world in general, and the problem of hunger in particular? This requires more than a yes or no answer or simply a solution that will come from the domain of social science. It is primarily a theological concern. Hence, there is the need to fashion out a theological framework.

In light of these observations, this research project investigates whether—and, if so, how—the Eucharist can mobilise individual sharing and community action(s) directed towards the alleviation and eradication of hunger. In this regard, it is the main aim of this research project to come up with a profound theological view on the problem of hunger in the world. More specifically, it has the intention to propose a Eucharistic model based on a fundamental principle of solidarity. In so doing, the model combines two things: a moral, though at the same time, systematic religious, indignation towards the devastating effects of hunger on the one hand, and the religious and sacramental identity of the Christian faith on the other hand. Throughout the work, we demonstrate, first, that the combination of both these aspects, hunger and Eucharist, seems not to be very evident, and, secondly, that it has not received the attention it deserves from both theologians and magisterium. As the relationship between hunger and the Eucharist seems not to be obvious, the project starts with a close analysis of the harrowing problem of hunger in all its aspects. This gives rise to a study of interventions by both civil and ecclesiastical authorities with regard to the problem of hunger. Some of the ecclesiastical documents on social issues, like Rerum Novarum, Quadragesimo Anno, Gaudium et Spes, Populorum Progressio , Sollicitudo Rei Socialis, Ecclesia de Eucharistia, and Sacramentum Caritatis will be taken into account. These documents are studied in the wider perspective of social teaching of the Church, of which hunger is only one of them.

By studying these documents, we intend to find out whether, in their attempt to understand the Church as a transformative power, they reflect any connection between the Eucharist (as a sacramental and liturgical affair) and the problem of hunger (as a social affair). Moreover, we will investigate whether the Church can really play a role of significance in overcoming the harrowing problem of hunger. As such, it is one thing to question whether the Church can play any role in eradicating hunger, yet another thing to consider how the Eucharist can challenge Christians to perpetuate Christ’s work of feeding the hungry. In the end we see whether, and how, the Eucharist, from the perspective of an African theology of liberation and inculturation could be used as model for eradicating hunger.

Structure and Methodology

This book is structured in four chapters. The first chapter deals with mapping out the problem, the basic status quaestionis. In chapters 2 and 3 attention is paid to the development of a theological framework for the possibility of establishing a connection between hunger and the Eucharist. While in chapter two we do so by referring to major sources of faith: Scripture, tradition, the official magisterial teaching of the Church, and the ideas of contemporary sacramental theologians. Chapter three discusses African theology, and African theologians, against the background of liberation and inculturation theology. Chapter 4 is an application of our reflections to Nigeria.

We employ an interdisciplinary approach based on the study of variegated literature from theology and social sciences. This is done, though not exclusively, by way of textual analysis. Secular, ecclesiastical, and related texts on hunger, the Eucharist, and social concerns are studied carefully and critically. Thus, a well-balanced combination of historical, descriptive, analytical, and critical methods of theological reflection are employed in an attempt to present a theologically sound and pastorally relevant understanding of the Eucharist as an impetus for eradicating world hunger. As one would expect, well-selected theological sources are dealt with. Hence, throughout this dissertation, different authors and sets of ideas are brought in confrontation with one another in an attempt to establish a genuinely theological framework. Without radicalising or undermining the essence of the Eucharist, we will use South East Nigeria as a point of reference. In light of this, our approach is not simply moral but also systematic and liturgical.

Composition of Chapters

In the first chapter, an attempt has been made to establish the relevance of this research project. A close analysis of the harrowing problem of hunger has been done in an attempt to see how the phenomenon of hunger is affecting people in different parts of the world. Major secular and ecclesiastical documents on our topic have been studied and critically evaluated. An investigation was made into the phenomenon and the possible causes of hunger. Our research reveals that there is and have always been abundant resources in the world, but hunger has been a perennial problem with a long history, especially in the so-called developing countries and emerging economies: Africa, Asia, and Latin America. It is also observed that hunger is more often caused by human beings than natural occurrences. As such, it is not a problem that is devoid of any remedy. This being the case, a more pragmatic effort needs to be put in place for the possibility of alleviating and eradicating its devastating effects so as to salvage the current situation of a scandalous number of people living below poverty level in various parts of the world.

Chapter two explore the sources of the theology of the sacrament of the Eucharist. Bearing in mind our main focus, they are studied in connection with the harrowing problem of hunger. It is here that we establish the foundations of our primary theological framework. We considered three major issues in our quest for a theological framework. First, we went through the Hebrew and Christian Bible in search of the origin of the Eucharist. While going through the Hebrew Bible, we looked for traces of symbols and practices that foreshadowed the Eucharist; of the New Testament, in the tradition that was inherited by the Incarnate Word. The time of Jesus and his Apostles is also considered. Secondly, we studied a selection of the Fathers of the Church, whose sacramental theology has relevance to our concern: connecting the moral issue of hunger and the sacramental-liturgical issue of the Eucharist. Those chosen for this task were Justin Martyr, Clement of Alexandria, and Tertullian.

In addition, Thomas Aquinas and Council of Trent were looked at. We chose Thomas Aquinas and the Council of Trent because of the prominent place of their formulations and dogmatic definitions on the sacraments in the tradition of Catholicism. The ideas and writings they produced especially occupy the Eucharist in sacramental theology. Such formulations present us with an understanding of the Eucharist, which has remained a point of reference. Thomas Aquinas approached the sacraments in such a systematic way that their relevance in the Church is evident. The Council of Trent put to rest a lot of doubts and suspicions on how best to understand the sacraments of the Church. For instance, it dogmatically defined the sacraments to be seven, with the Eucharist occupying a central place in Church’s mission in the world, among which is ‘feeding the hungry’. It also gave vent to Church’s teaching of real presence of Christ in the Eucharist. In Thomas Aquinas and Trent, we find doctrinal aspect of the Eucharist as the Body and Blood of Christ—whereby Christ is truly, really, and substantially present under the species of bread and wine, which offer the basis for our theological framework.

To deepen the connection between hunger and the Eucharist in the sources of faith, we have recourse to official teaching authority of the Church too. Since these documents were not directly intended to deal with the issue of hunger and the Eucharist, we studied them for the purpose of strengthening our motivation for considering the Eucharist in a discourse about the problem of hunger. From Vatican II Documents, we selected Sacrosanctum Concilium, Gaudium et Spes, and Lumen Gentium. Other Church documents studied are Dominicae Cenae, Ecclesia de Eucharistia, and the post-synodal apostolic exhortation on the Eucharist Sacramentum Caritatis.

In this chapter, we move from the classical scholastic understanding of the sacraments to modernity and beyond, with particular reference to the sacrament of the Eucharist. However, we deemed it necessary to have closer look at some contemporary sacramental theologians like David N. Power, Louis-Marie Chauvet, and Leonardo Boff too. They are among the theologians who have undertaken a hermeneutical approach to the understanding of the sacraments. It is by subjecting their thought (as it pertains to the Eucharist and hunger) to critical analysis that we launched the ecclesiological and sacramental basis of our own theological framework.

In this effort, we looked at sacraments as markers in the history of faith of a Christian. The sacraments are always already situated within the Christian journey of faith in the world. Attempting to establish a link between the sacrament of the Eucharist and the concrete problem of hunger, we also underscored the transformative perspective of the Eucharist in postmodernity. This paved the way for a ‘contextualisation’ of the sacrament of the Eucharist in the contemporary world. One of the derivations is that we pondered the link between the Eucharist and social justice. Against this background, we explored the possibility of the Eucharistic community to effect a profound change in the world that can counteract the affliction of hunger. One of the strengths of the theologians we studied is their consistency with the Church’s basic understanding of the Eucharist as a divine gift, which invites a response, not for the good of the donor (God), but for the benefit of the recipient: human beings.

From the foregoing, it is my contention that there is considerable evidence that, though there was a paradigmatic shift in understanding of the sacraments from the time of Vatican II onwards, the basic theological foundation was in no way distorted. There is also an improved concern to align social problems, like hunger, with the sacrament of the Eucharist.

In Chapter three, we examine what African theology is all about. We explore its two major categories: liberation and inculturation. However, we concentrate on the African Christian theology which needs to be distinguished from generic African theology. This claim made it necessary for us to further explore the meaning of African theology against the background of Latin American liberation theology. This was done partly because of point of contact between Latin American and African theology. And also to the extent that it will help us in substantiating our major claim in this research work, connect this chapter with the preceding chapters, and also serve as a bridge to the fourth and last chapter. This task leads us into studying some African theologians as well as situating the Eucharist in African context. In a special way, we enrich the African contextual theology of the Eucharist as it relates to the problem of hunger. Attempting to situate our quest within the ambit of ecclesio-sacramentological investigations, liberation theology and inculturation are used as points of reference. This task led us into studying some African theologians like Bénézet Bujo, Elochukwu E. Uzukwu, Patrick Chibuko, and Oliver A. Onwubiko.

From the foregoing, key words in this chapter are African theology, Eucharist, and hunger. All the African theologians studied are from the sub-Saharan Africa. However, none of them directly dealt with nor raised the issue of hunger, not to mention venturing into connecting it with the Eucharist. With this emphatic lack in mind, we take our research to another level in chapter four.

In chapter four we apply the preceding reflections to Nigeria. We restrict our quest to a particular and representative part of Nigeria. Our attention is directed to South East Nigeria. This region records disturbing cases of disparity between worship and life, the rich and the poor, the hungry and the well-fed. Yet this is the region with the highest number of Christians in Nigeria. In order not to divert our research focus, we do not delve into a profound analysis of the concrete situation. However, we highlight some of the challenges that are connected to the Eucharist and the problem of hunger. Here, we study and evaluate Western exploratory, colonising, and missionary activities in Nigeria from the point of view of how they still affect African thought and culture on the one hand, and the problem of hunger on the other hand. This is done because of our contention that these periods in African history are essential in any study on Africa, not only in the area of theology, but also in economics, politics, sociology, cultural studies, and other related disciplines. In this way, we establish a point of departure towards studying and evaluating prevalent pastoral challenges and chances from a Eucharistic model. The integration of insights and reflections, above mentioned, leads us to proposing an encompassing Eucharistic model to address the problem of hunger.

In light of the theological framework developed, the Eucharist and hunger are approached within the context of the Igbo people’s philosophy of ‘onye a ghana nwanne ya (do not forsake your neighbour). Although this phrase cannot be adequately translated by one particular word or expression, it suggests a combination of love, solidarity, concern, and commensality. However, what we consider to be the closest Eucharistic attributes to it are koinonia and diakonia. The choice for this concept (onye a ghana nwanne ya) is motivated by the nature of the Eucharist, not only as a sacrifice, but also as a communal meal. Besides, to the Igbo, solidarity implies continuum and interdependence of all beings: human, animal, and nature.¹⁴ We examine whether this traditional concept entails the necessary tools for a conceptually sound and a really plausible connection between the Eucharist and hunger.

CHAPTER 1

The Problem of Hunger and Its Devastating Effects

Introduction

Hunger is a global and at the same time complex problem.¹⁵ With regard to understanding it, some ambivalence is apparently unavoidable. In common parlance, it may be seen as a lack and, indeed, an aberration that needs to be satisfied. When one is physically hungry, eating food is the basic way of satisfying the hunger. Within Christianity, hunger suggests, to a great extent, asceticism or the desire to be in union with the divine in the world to come, which may be likened to the philosopher Plato’s world of ideas.¹⁶ Our major concern, however, is physical rather than spiritual hunger. With this in mind, it is our contention, as a prolegomenon of this research project, to posit thought-provoking questions on the complexity and harrowing nature of the problem of hunger. This will lead us into looking at nuances, reality, causation, and approaches to cushion effects of hunger. By its very nature, this goes beyond a mere dictionary definition and also calls for an interdisciplinary approach.

As such, hunger is not just an economic, political, or agricultural problem. It is also a theological as well as an ethical question. One would even argue that concern for the poor and food for the hungry were very important in Jesus’s earthly ministry.¹⁷ Along this line, Jack A. Nelson contends that ‘social conditions that served as the backdrop for Jesus’ ministry were similar to those described by Amos’.¹⁸

In this chapter, we explore the meaning, problem, causes of and approaches to hunger. While having recourse to history, various secular and religious groups which have ventured into alleviating hunger and poverty are looked at and evaluated. This is partly because of the belief that the social, economic, and political issues of the world cannot adequately be dealt with unless the horizontal concern of the human being is taken into consideration.¹⁹ As such, secular and religious approaches to the problem of hunger will be critically studied and analysed in this chapter. A survey of relevant documents on social Catholic teaching would be made in view of appraising (though not exclusively) whether and, if so, how the Catholic Church has substantially linked the problem of hunger with Eucharistic celebration and practice.

1.1. Stating the Question

There are basic questions concerning the harrowing and complex problem of hunger. These revolve around (though not exclusively) its conceptualisation, scope, causes, effects as well as efforts that have been made in the past, and are being made in the present, towards its alleviation and possible eradication.²⁰ With this in mind, we intend to delve into the meaning of hunger against the background of interdisciplinary studies. By so doing, we will later situate this within the context of the Eucharist.

But what is hunger? What does it mean to be hungry? Why is there hunger in the world? Is there any remedy to world hunger, or is it better to leave the hungry to their fate so as to reduce the environment from alleged collapse on account of overpopulation?²¹ It is to these questions that we shall turn our attention now.

1.1.1. Quest for the Meaning of Hunger

Concepts and realities at times defy exact definition. Hunger is one of them. No one lexicon definition can satisfy our curiosity in the quest for the meaning of hunger. We will, therefore, resort to an explication of the word rather than a mere definition. Classically viewed, it can be taken to mean craving for food, or need for or lack of food, or even strong desire for anything. Generically, hunger means a craving/strong desire for or lack of food. Alex de Waal appears to be toeing this line, when he portrays hunger as the unpleasant physiological sensation that follows from failing to eat enough food.²² Going further, he opines that hunger, as a concept, encompasses a range of forms of severe suffering that causes the poor people of the world to live an impoverished and shortened life.²³ Should we follow this understanding of hunger as a concept, we may lose our grip as regards the real meaning of the phenomenon under consideration. It may even be better to call it an issue²⁴ more because of the attention it has received from various quarters in the universe.

Millman and Kates conceive it in terms of deprivation of what the body needs for proper functioning. For them, hunger is simply ‘an inadequacy in individual dietary intake relative to the kind and quantity of food required for growth, for activity, and for the maintenance of good health’.²⁵ Such a conceptualisation of hunger is diverse in scope as it can imply either voluntary (by way of fasting and mortification) or involuntary hunger. Though both fall within the scope of hunger, it is the involuntary hunger that is really seen as problematic. Mahatma Gandhi, for example, made himself a cultural icon, when he embarked on a protracted three-week hunger strike to further peace and religious tolerance in India, in 1924.²⁶ This may be likened to the type of hunger people experience when they engage in fasting, either because of their belief (religious or otherwise) or for the sake of losing weight. Following are the words of Sharman Apt Russell:

Not eating seems to be innately religious. Physical hunger is too good a metaphor for spiritual hunger, and to fast is to proclaim your hunger for what is not physical—for the divine. At the same time, physical hunger is a metaphor for the desires of the body, and to fast is to overcome those desires, to trade the body for the spirit. All the major religions expect their followers to fast in some way, at some time, and for the same reasons: to focus the mind on God, to control the body, to prepare for revelation, and to offer penance of sacrifice.²⁷

Above kind of hunger and fasting apparently were modelled after spirituality in sacred writings, like the Bible. One may say that Jesus regards fasting (voluntary hunger) as a given for discipleship. This practice was very much popularised in the Middle Ages. In the contemporary era, Christianity seems not to be talking much about voluntary hunger, a practice that still occupies a significant place among religions like Islam and Buddhism.²⁸

Suffice it to say, then, that hunger is more than a concept as we shall later see in this research. Monika Hellwig argues that to be human is to be hungry and not to be hungry is to be dead.²⁹ Although many persons at various parts of the globe are hungering for food, there are some who are hungering for justice or freedom while others still hunger for spiritual fulfilment. This, however, does not suggest that a combination of the three in some cases is impossible. Perhaps St Augustine had the last group mentioned above in mind, when he opined that because of our relationship with God it is only when we are in union with him that we can find rest.³⁰ Similarly, a deep, instinctive hunger for a personal relationship with the Creator still remains and inevitably surfaces when career, family, and philosophy fall short of an individual’s expectations.³¹ It is against this backdrop of hunger’s complexity that one can say that its genuine treatment needs to transcend its traditional disciplinary boundaries as an agricultural problem.³² Modern and contemporary exigencies have made it not only necessary but also compelling for it to be a concern for agriculture economics, politics, and even theology.

In the book entitled Ending Hunger: An Idea Whose Time Has Come, authored by The Hunger Project,³³ one sees a clue to a concise understanding of what hunger is all about. It runs thus:

All of us have been ‘hungry’ at some time or other. This usually means simply that we have an appetite. But the hunger experienced by hundreds of millions of people on our planet is not an appetite that comes and goes; it is a consuming, debilitating, minute-by-minute, day-after-day experience. Hunger—the persistent, chronic, relentless condition—keeps people from working productively and thinking clearly. It decreases their resistance of disease. It can be intensely painful. Prolonged hunger can result in permanent damage to the body and mind. And, ultimately, if hunger goes on long enough, it kills.³⁴

The above reflection on hunger captures the meaning of hunger, which is not only enwrapped in complexity but is also catastrophic, fatal, and expansive in geographical coverage. It is embedded with claims that present hunger as a problem that calls for an immediate and sustained attention till it is not just alleviated, but eradicated. This is the concept of hunger that fits into our concern. Such a claim may necessitate certain questions. Can one really say that human beings are hungry? If hunger was a threat in years past, does it still pose any threat in the contemporary era? These questions will be our concern in the considerations that follow.

1.1.2. Hunger: Food Scarcity in the World of Plenty?

Human history has evidenced cases and varied degrees of hunger. In recent times it appears to be receiving an increasing global concern. To all the people who daily struggle for something to eat, its meaning can be easily understood. During their journey to the Promised Land, God’s specially chosen people (the Israelites) rebelled against their Creator and Liberator especially when they felt hungry or thirsty.³⁵ In our time, a good number of people are ravaged by hunger. Craig L. Nessan observes that ‘the apostolic church of Acts is remembered for its generosity, flowing out from its table fellowship’.³⁶ These days, the need for alleviating hunger amidst people in various parts of the world has been regarded not just as urgent but also as a matter for economic, social, political, religious, and ethical concern.

Some authors have now come up with various kinds and degrees of hunger. These they call undernutrition, malnutrition, and over-nutrition.³⁷ Apart from these, one can also talk of other forms of hunger that can easily be determined: seasonal hunger and famine.³⁸ In each case, infants and children are the most vulnerable victims. Moreover, the most widely established yardstick for measuring the reality of hunger is the infant mortality rate.³⁹

Hunger today is more than ever before taken to be a reality.⁴⁰ It is severe, fatal, and devastating. For George McGovern, ‘no war in all history has ever killed so many humans and spread so much suffering and disease in any year as world hunger’.⁴¹ In the contemporary world, it is a popular opinion that hunger is a phenomenon familiar to citizens of developing as well as those of the advanced and industrialised countries. Over the years, organisations like UNICEF⁴² have urged the affluent nations of the Western world to offer meaningful help to alleviate the plague of hunger amidst children of Asia, Africa, and Latin America.⁴³ At various times in human history, development agencies like the World Bank, CARE⁴⁴, and USAID⁴⁵ have offered a helping hand towards eradicating poverty and hunger in less-privileged countries of the world. Countries like Somalia, Ethiopia, Cambodia, Rwanda, and Haiti really know what it means to be plagued by hunger. In some cases, the poor are the major victims. In their stricken state, they fall prey to various life-threatening dangers and sicknesses. However, the most vulnerable are children, pregnant women, nursing mothers, the sick, and the elderly. Added to them are refugees, peasants, street beggars, and subsistence farmers.⁴⁶

George McGovern observes that ‘today’s malnourished pregnant and nursing mothers are producing tomorrow’s barriers to personal, social, and economic development—malnourished, brain-dulled, listless children’.⁴⁷ The Pontifical Council Cor Unum’s contention that ‘there are also other vulnerable groups that run a very high risk of malnutrition [and hunger]: refugees and displaced persons, as well as victims of political turmoil’,⁴⁸ heightens the claim. Being constantly exposed to devastating effects of hunger is their lot. These effects are felt globally. Let us next turn our attention to causes of hunger.

1.2. An Investigation of Causes of Hunger

Various factors have been identified as causes of hunger. This is partly because the problem of hunger cuts across different structures and disciplines. Scholars seem not to be unanimous with regard to these factors. Consequently, they have both opponents and proponents. Besides, what is applicable in one region may not be so in another. We will, at this stage, investigate into some of these causes. In so doing, we do not intend to delve into their proponents and opponents’ controversy. Rather, we will look at these causes against the background of the Eucharist as a model for social transformation with particular reference to the problem of hunger.

1.2.1. Population Explosion

A country may be considered to be overpopulated when her population is increased to such an extent that the quantity of space and available resources are insufficient for all its inhabitants. If a country has a population of about 150 million, but the available resources will be enough for about thirteen million, such a country is said to be overpopulated. Again, if a country finds it impossible to find resources with which to provide the basic needs of its entire population (like housing, clothing, health care, employment, transportation, and education), it can be considered to be overpopulated.⁴⁹ On the other hand, if a country has only about thirteen million inhabitants, while its available resources can feed 150 million people, it is said to be underpopulated. This is so because it has resources more than its inhabitants need. In this context, overpopulation can be one of the major causes of a country’s hunger.⁵⁰ It is a traditional view that ‘many hungry countries are overpopulated, and that overpopulation causes hunger’.⁵¹ While some maintain that the world’s population needs to be put under control (wherein there are noticeable discrepancies as to how this can be realised), others still maintain that God has provided everyone with all that is needed. Not only that, some population theorists (the opponents of population as a cause of hunger) maintain that there is already enough food for the entire humanity, and much more