Understanding, Assessing, and Responding to Terrorism: Protecting Critical Infrastructure and Personnel

By Brian T. Bennett

A comprehensive guide to understanding, assessing, and responding to terrorism in this modern age

This book provides readers with a thorough understanding of the types of attacks that may be perpetrated, and how to identify potential targets, conduct a meaningful vulnerability analysis, and apply protective measures to secure personnel and facilities. The new edition of Understanding, Assessing, and Responding to Terrorism updates existing material and includes several new topics that have emerged, including information on new international terrorist groups as well as a new chapter on Regulations and Standards. 

A vulnerability analysis methodology, consisting of several steps—which include the techniques necessary to conduct a vulnerability analysis—is introduced and applied through several sample scenarios. By using easily customized templates for the screening process, valuation of a critical asset as a target, vulnerability analysis, security procedures, emergency response procedures, and training programs, the book offers a practical step-by-step process to help reduce risk. Each different type of terrorism is briefly discussed—however, the book focuses on those potential attacks that may involve weapons of mass destruction. There is a discussion of what physical and administrative enhancements can be implemented to improve a facility's ability to devalue, detect, deter, deny, delay, defend, respond, and recover to a real or threatened terrorist attack—whether it be at a facility, or in the community. Techniques on how personnel safety and security can be improved through the implementation of counter-terrorism programs are also outlined.

An overview of the major counter-terrorism regulations and standards are presented, along with the significant governmental efforts that have been implemented to help prevent terrorist attacks and foster preparedness at both private and public sector facilities and for personnel.

Understanding, Assessing, and Responding to Terrorism, Second Edition:

• Updates existing material, plus includes several new topics that have emerged including information on new international terrorist groups, new terrorist tactics, cyber terrorism, and Regulations and Standards
• Outlines techniques for improving facility and personnel safety and security through the implementation of counter-terrorism programs
• Unites the emergency response/public sector community with the private sector over infrastructure protection, thus allowing for easier communication between them
• Includes questions/exercises at the end of each chapter and a solutions manual to facilitate its use as a textbook

Understanding, Assessing, and Responding to Terrorism, Second Edition is a must-have reference for private and public sector risk managers, safety engineers, security professionals, facility managers, emergency responders, and others charged with protecting facilities and personnel from all types of hazards (accidental, intentional, and natural).

• Language: English
• Publisher: Wiley
• Release date: Dec 21, 2017
• ISBN: 9781119237815

Book preview

Preface

This book could serve as an introductory text for the student new to homeland security, as well as a valuable reference for the experienced security professional.

September 11, 2001 was a watershed moment in our nation's history. The attacks that occurred that day were our first taste of a significant international terrorist attack occurring in our homeland. Much like previous generations that can instantly recall where they were and what they were doing when Pearl Harbor was attacked or President John F. Kennedy was assassinated, many Americans have the same vivid recollections with regard to the September 11 attacks. The images of the World Trade Center Towers first being struck and then collapsing, the Pentagon in flames, and the crater in the Pennsylvania countryside resulting from the crash of United Flight 93 were forever seared in our memories thanks to real-time media reporting. Our way of life was forever changed on that fall morning. From that day forward, security issues now reign paramount in our daily activities. As an example, the most involved reorganization of our government, which led to the creation of the Department of Homeland Security, was a direct result of the September 11 attacks and an indication of the newfound importance of homeland security. Although international terrorism may be a new concept to some in America, terrorism has existed for thousands of years as illustrated in the many examples through this book. As our techniques for protecting the homeland evolve, so do the terrorists. As protective measures are developed and implemented, adversaries continue to come up with new ways to cause harm. For this reason, the field of homeland security will continue to be an important part of the activities the government, private sector, and individual citizens perform every day.

This book was written to assist organizations, both private and public, in identifying what is critical to them and worth protecting from hazards. All organizations must take appropriate actions to reduce risk and protect their critical assets. Although each organization will deem what is important to them, it should be remembered that when they are grouped together with other critical assets in an organization, a municipality, a region, or the nation, they may not maintain that same level of criticality or importance that warrants an expenditure of time, effort, and money to protect.

As this book may be used as a text for academic study, the end of each chapter contains questions and a project. The questions are designed to provoke thought about a particular topic, and can be used as the basis for discussion in a group setting. The project is designed to build on each previous chapter, culminating in a package of customized material that can be used as the basis of a protective program for specific critical assets.

Chapter 1, The Terrorist Threat, reviews the history of terrorism including international and domestic terrorist organizations, along with a selection of attacks that have been perpetrated over the past 50 years. By studying what has happened in the past, we can develop preventative measures against future attacks. Chapter 1 also includes some issues at the forefront today, such as the role of media in terrorism and the protection of citizen's civil liberties in the fight against terror.

Chapter 2, Critical Infrastructure, provides suggestions on how to identify critical infrastructure, key resources, and key assets. The principles and examples in this book apply equally regardless of organization or jurisdiction. Each organization or jurisdiction has a responsibility to identify their critical assets, assess the threat posed against them, and evaluate the risk that those critical assets may be degraded or destroyed. A new section in the second edition discusses how to ascertain how attractive a critical asset may be to a terrorist planning an attack.

In keeping with the all hazards theme of this book, Chapter 3, Types of Terrorist Attacks, introduces the reader to the three types of destruction events and how a critical asset may be adversely affected. However, emphasis is placed on the intentional destructive event that could be perpetrated by an adversary, including their tactics, whether they are an insider, outsider, or one working in collusion with an insider. The target selection processes, including basic screening methodologies that can be used to determine a critical asset's attractiveness as a target, are also provided. The second edition includes an expanded section on cyber terrorism, and the weaponization of the internet, which is rapidly becoming a significant issue that must be addressed.

The premise of this book is that critical assets should be protected from all hazards and all risks, not just terrorism. The principles covered are designed for all threats from minor criminal activity through the use of a weapon of mass destruction by a terrorist. Many of the basic principles that are applied to assessing and protecting a critical asset from being bombed by a terrorist can also be applied to reduce the likelihood of theft. The principles covered in a comprehensive emergency preparedness and response plan that address how to mitigate and recover from a terrorist attack can likewise be used to recover from the damage caused by a hurricane. There are various scenarios and case studies presented to assist in the implementation of an assessment and countermeasure process.

The most horrific attack a terrorist could initiate would involve a weapon of mass destruction, which is covered in Chapter 4, Weapons of Mass Destruction. These weapons, which would involve the use of a biological, chemical, or nuclear/radiological agent, or an incendiary or explosive device, would be truly devastating if executed properly. Therefore, an entire chapter is devoted to describing these weapons, and how a terrorist may go about turning an apparently innocuous or commonly available material into a weapon. Having this understanding will greatly assist in performing the vulnerability and risk assessment processes as well as developing appropriate security countermeasures. Weapons used by terrorists are limited only by the imagination. Commercial products used in our everyday lives can be used as unconventional weapons. The second edition includes a new section on some of these potential weapons.

Chapter 5, The Terrorists Preparation for an Attack, addresses the various pre-attack preparations an adversary may undertake before executing an attack. Included are eight potential indicators of terrorism; these indicators are the core of a training program for personnel to help them recognize that a plot may be afoot. The next logical step after conducting a vulnerability analysis will be to evaluate the risk of adverse consequences, and implement the appropriate level of security countermeasures.

Chapter 6, Risk and Threat Assessment, presents several examples of worksheets that can be used to assess asset criticality, asset value, threat analysis, and consequences of a successful attack. Risk and threat assessment and analysis techniques are also discussed, including examples of both qualitative and quantitative risk analysis.

Chapter 7, The Security Vulnerability Analysis, has been reformatted and expanded in the second edition to present a critical asset screening methodology and the process of conducting a security vulnerability assessment for all types of potential loss. Several examples and sample worksheets are provided.

Just as all organizations and jurisdictions have an obligation to assess their vulnerabilities and risks, they have an obligation to implement effective security countermeasures. These countermeasures can take many forms, and will certainly vary from organization to organization and jurisdiction to jurisdiction based on the threat and risk assessment.

Chapter 8, Principles of Protective Security, details the principles of protective security and introduces the concept of rings of protection. Rings of protection involve the use of several overlapping and complementary security measures that can be implemented to reduce vulnerabilities and hence risk.

Chapter 9, Effective Security Countermeasures, provides some basic guidance, examples, and templates for various security countermeasures that can be customized to fit specific applications. New sections in the second edition have been added to cover active shooter incidents and attacks on transportation systems.

Chapter 10, General Emergency Response Considerations, provides some basic principles of emergency response, including an introduction to the Incident Command System (ICS) and the National Incident Management System (NIMS). These basic principles are valid for any type of emergency situation.

Chapter 11, Emergency Response to a Weapon of Mass Destruction Attack, provides some basic guidance on how to respond to an incident involving the use of a weapon of mass destruction.

A new Chapter 12 has been added to the second edition, Homeland Security Laws, Regulations, and Standards. Information includes an overview of the Chemical Facility Anti-Terrorism Standards and the Maritime Transportation Security Act.

This second edition is prepared with the latest information concerning the threat and security countermeasures. Homeland security is a very dynamic field, with changes occurring on almost a daily basis. As such, we must never let our guard down, and must constantly maintain situational awareness of the world around us. It is only through the steadfast dedication and commitment of homeland security professionals that major attacks by international terrorist organizations have been thwarted.

There were many who have supported and encouraged me in this endeavor. To these behind-the-scene family and friends whose names do not appear in print, I extend my sincere appreciation and gratitude for their support.

To the practitioners in the field of homeland security, this work is submitted in the hope it will be a useful tool in strengthening our critical infrastructure and in helping to prevent casualties and loss in the future.

Woodbridge, NJ Brian T. Bennett

1

The Terrorist Threat

1.1 What Is Terrorism?

For many Americans, September 11, 2001 represented our first exposure to the devastating effects of international terrorism, and the day the war on terrorism began. Others believe America's first exposure to terrorism began with the seizing of the US embassy in Tehran, Iran on November 4, 1979. In reality, although not widely associated with the United States, terrorism has existed for centuries. Terrorism is not something new.

Terrorism is understood as a type of violence, with fear the goal of that violence. The word terrorism comes from the French word terrorisme, and originally referred specifically to state terrorism as practiced by the French government during the 1793–1794 Jacobin's Reign of Terror.

The French word terrorisme in turn derives from the Latin terrere meaning to frighten, scare, startle, or terrify [1]. The modern definition of terrorism has proven elusive. Various regulatory agencies and governments use different definitions, primarily because of the legal, emotional, and political influences. The current meaning of terrorism as defined by the US Department of State in the United States Code, Title 22, Section 2656f (d), is premeditated, politically motivated violence perpetrated against non-combatant targets by subnational groups or clandestine agents, usually intended to influence an audience. Terrorism is often random by design: the attacks intentionally and indiscriminately impact non-combatants. Terrorism is premeditated, criminal in nature, politically motivated, potentially includes religious, philosophical, ideological, or culturally symbolic motivations, violent, and perpetrated against a non-combatant target.

1.2 The History of Terrorism

Depending on how broadly the term is defined, the roots and practice of terrorism can be traced at least to the first century A.D. Sicarii Zealots, a radical offshoot of the Zealots. The Sicarii were a Jewish group who murdered enemies and collaborators, including temple priests, Sadducees, Herodians, and other wealthy elite in their campaign to eliminate Roman rule in Judea.

The Hashshashin, whose name gave us the English word assassins, were a secretive Islamic sect active in Iran and Syria from the eleventh to the thirteenth century. Hashshashin forces were too small to challenge enemies militarily, so they assassinated city governors and military commanders in order to create alliances. Their dramatically executed assassinations of political figures terrorized their contemporaries.

The term terrorism itself was originally used to describe the actions of the Jacobin Club during the Reign of Terror during the French Revolution in 1793. The Jacobin's employed violence, including mass executions by guillotine, to compel obedience to the state. Maximilien Robespierre, one of the 12 heads of the new state, had enemies of the revolution killed, and installed a dictatorship to stabilize the country. Approximately 40,000 were killed, including Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette. Robespierre's sentiment laid the foundations for modern terrorists, who believe violence will usher in a better system.

In January 1858, Italian patriot Felice Orsini threw three bombs in an attempt to assassinate French Emperor Napoleon III. Eight bystanders were killed and 142 injured. The incident played a crucial role as an inspiration for the development of the early terrorist groups.

Arguably, the first organization to utilize modern terrorist techniques was the Fenian Brotherhood and its offshoot the Irish Republican Brotherhood, founded in 1858 as a revolutionary Irish nationalist group that carried out attacks in England. The group initiated the Fenian dynamite campaign in 1881, one of the first modern terror campaigns.Instead of earlier forms of terrorism based on political assassination, this campaign used modern, timed explosives with the express aim of sowing fear in the very heart of metropolitan Britain, in order to achieve political gains.

Another early terrorist group was Norodnaya Volya, founded in Russia in 1878 as a revolutionary anarchist group inspired by Sergey Nechayev and propaganda by the deed theorist Pisacane. The group developed ideas, such as targeted killing of the leaders of oppression, that were to become the hallmark of subsequent violence by small non-state groups, and they were convinced that the developing technologies of the age, such as the invention of dynamite, which they were the first anarchist group to make widespread use of, enabled them to strike directly and with discrimination.

In the United States, prior to the Civil War, abolitionist John Brown advocated and practiced armed opposition to slavery, leading several attacks between 1856 and 1859, the most famous in 1859 against the armory at Harpers Ferry, West Virginia.

After the Civil War, on December 24, 1865, six Confederate Army veterans created the Ku Klux Klan (KKK) as a fraternal social club. Beginning in April 1867, there was a gradual transformation to an insurgent movement to restore white supremacy. The KKK used violence, lynching, murder, and acts of intimidation such as cross burning to oppress, in particular, African Americans.

The Muslim Brotherhood was founded in 1928 as a nationalist social welfare and political movement in Egypt, which at the time was controlled by Great Britain. During the 1940s, the Muslim Brotherhood attacked British soldiers and police stations and assassinated politicians that collaborated with Britain. The group continues to exist in Egypt today.

Fatah was organized as a Palestinian nationalist group in 1954. In 1967, it joined the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO). The PLO is made up of many organizations, the largest of which are Fatah, Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP), and the Democratic Front for the Liberation of Palestine (DFLP). Factions of the PLO have advocated and carried out acts of terrorism. Fatah leader and PLO Chairman Yasser Arafat publically renounced terrorism in December 1988 on behalf of the PLO, but Israel has stated it has proof that Arafat continued to sponsor terrorism until his death in November 2004.

The Partiya Karkeren Kurdistan (Kurdistan Workers Party or PKK) was established in Turkey in 1978 as a Kurdish nationalist party. The group seeks to create an independent Kurdish state consisting of Southeastern Turkey, Northeastern Iraq, Northeastern Syria, and Northwestern Iran. The PKK has launched bombings against Turkish government facilities.

The Japanese Red Army was founded in Japan in 1971, and attempted to overthrow the Japanese government and start a world revolution. Allied with the PFLP, the group committed assassinations, hijacked a commercial Japanese airliner, and sabotaged a Shell Oil refinery in Singapore. The group also launched a machine gun and grenade attack against Israel's Lod Airport in Tel Aviv, killing 26 people and injuring 80 others.

Founded in 1976, the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE or the Tamil Tigers) was a militant Tamil nationalist political and paramilitary organization based in Sri Lanka. LTTE waged a secessionist resistance campaign that sought to create an independent Tamil state in the northern and eastern regions of Sri Lanka. The group carried out many bombings, including an April 21, 1987 car bomb attack at a Colombo bus terminal that killed 110 people. In 2009, the Sri Lankan military launched a major offensive and claimed that it had effectively destroyed the LTTE [2].

1.3 The Motivation for Terrorism

What would give a person or group the motivation to resort to a terrorist act? Why would someone perpetrate terrorism to achieve their goals? How can injuring or murdering innocent people be justified?

There are many motivations for terrorism, including:

Perceived Injustice. A person may feel they have not been treated properly, and that gives rise to anger. They may want to align with an organization that will help correct that wrong.

Religion. Religion is an external influence that may affect the actions of a terrorist if they believe there is no other recourse. Religion often generates very strong feelings on many sensitive issues.

Identity. For those who feel disenfranchised or marginalized, a terrorist group may provide an opportunity for a person to fit in to a group with similar beliefs.

Accomplish a Goal. The primary reason a person or group would perpetrate an act of terrorism would be to accomplish a goal, which, in the case of terrorism, is to achieve social, religious, or political change.

Instill Fear. In order to facilitate their desire to foster change, terrorists attempt to instill fear in a population.

Revenge. A terrorist may desire to avenge a previous perceived wrong or injustice.

Publicity. Terrorists may perpetrate an attack to draw attention to their cause and influence people to provide support for their efforts.

Terrorism primarily seeks to assist an organization or individual to further their ideological ideals. Thus, there are five key distinguishing elements of terrorism:

It is premeditated—planned in advanced and not conducted as an impulsive act of rage.

It is political—designed to change the existing political order.

It is aimed at civilians—not military personnel or facilities.

It is carried out by subnational groups or individuals—not a country's army.

It involves organizations and is not just the actions of isolated individuals.

In the world of terrorism, physical assets including people, products, services, information, money, and property are all viewed as targets. What sets terrorism apart from mass murder is not only that it is an attack carried out against civilians (non-combatants), but it also has psychological affects that must be dealt with across the general population. From the terrorists’ point of view, they need to conduct just one significant attack every year or two to maintain the public's or a government's fear and anxiety. Terrorist attacks are often spectacular, designed to disturb and influence a wide audience beyond the victims of the attack itself.

There are both direct and indirect victims of terrorism. The direct victims include those who were the target of an attack and were adversely affected. Indirect victims of a terrorist attack are those who were remote from the attack, yet suffered some type of harm anyway. An example of a direct victim of terrorism would be a person who was killed in a suicide bomb attack at a hotel. An indirect victim from this attack would be the hotel itself, which lost business and prestige because of the psychological affect the attack had on potential patrons who are scared about another attack being perpetrated on its property.

Terrorism is more than just brutal violence; there is a strategy behind all terrorist actions. That strategy is the deliberate use of violence against civilians to achieve political, philosophical, social, ideological, or religious goals. Terrorism will disrupt foreign policy, disrupt peace initiatives, and sow discomfort and domestic unrest in a geopolitical region. The true target of the terrorist is society as a whole.

1.4 Can the Use of Terrorism be Justified?

Terrorism is abhorred by society because of its random violence perpetrated against a non-combatant (civilian) population. However, with that being said, can the use of terrorist tactics ever be justified? Is there a situation in which terrorism can be tolerated?

Although terrorism is directed at non-combatants, the victims may not necessarily be innocent of the wrongs the terrorists are fighting against. For example, if a civilian population supports and works with a government or organization to support their agenda could they not be considered fair targets in a terrorists attack? Can the targeting of non-combatants (civilians) by terrorists be tolerated or even perhaps justified? Consider what Osama Bin Laden said in a 2005 interview in which he was asked if killing innocent people in the September 11, 2001 attacks is consistent with Islamic principles. He said, The American people should remember that they pay taxes to their government and that they voted for their president. Their government makes weapons and provides them to Israel, which they use to kill Palestinian Muslims. Given that the American Congress is a committee that represents the people, the fact that it agrees with the actions of the American government proves that America in its entirety is responsible for the atrocities that it is committing against Muslims [3]. Is this a sufficient argument that all Americans hold some culpability and liability? Is it correct to say that because civilians vote in elections and pay taxes they can now be considered legitimate targets for terrorists?

Terrorism is often judged solely in light of its results and consequences. Terrorism may not be considered wrong by some unless the results and consequences are perceived as bad. What happens if terrorism is used and the results and consequences are perceived by some as good? Can the use of terrorism be justified if the end result is sufficient to justify the means? What if the end will only be reached through the use of terrorism?

Consider an example from the American revolution. In 1773, the Sons of Liberty executed an attack that became known as the Boston Tea Party. The group was known to use violence as a means to promote their cause, which was the freedom of the American colonies. Could this attack be considered an act of terrorism considering the economic damage and violence perpetrated against a non-combatant entity to promote their political agenda, or was it simply a crime committed by a group of angry protesters? Another example involves the US military in World War 2, and the firebombing of Japanese cities in an attempt to expedite an end to the war. Could these attacks on non-combatants be considered an act of terrorism, or were the civilian deaths an unfortunate consequence of war?

Terrorism might be justified based on one's viewpoint. Terrorism is certainly considered justified by those who perpetrate it and endorse its use. Terrorism is not justified by those who fight it and see it as a violation of basic human rights. One man's freedom fighter is another man's terrorist [4].

1.5 The Role of Media in Terrorism

One of the goals of terrorism is media attention. The news media provides free coverage of the terrorist's attack in support of that goal. Would the execution of a terrorist attack be as effective without global, real-time coverage? Is it possible that the news media's coverage may actually encourage additional terrorist attacks? Is it possible that media coverage and commentary makes an attack more successful? The effects of this free advertising should not be underestimated.

Terrorist acts are designed to be impressive in scope and generate attention in order to further the terrorist's mission. There are two audiences a terrorist act is designed to attract: those whom the terrorist is trying to impress, and those whom the terrorist is trying to intimidate.

The news media can be exploited with or without their concurrence to ensure both audiences are reached. The news media can show a terrorist is a credible force that can execute an attack in furtherance of their mission. Terrorists need this exposure to assist them in recruiting additional supporters and to raise money for their efforts. The news media can also be used to communicate the terrorist's mission to people near and far from the attack, helping to spread fear and concern. In their efforts to report and analyze the attack, the media has also publicized the terrorist's agenda, given credibility to the terrorist's capabilities to execute an attack, validated perceived vulnerabilities that exist in critical infrastructure, and forced governments to take action. The news media can also provide useful information to terrorists by providing information about security enhancements and emergency response procedures and capabilities that would otherwise be difficult to obtain.

1.6 The Role of Social Media in Terrorism

The terrorist's exploitation of the media goes beyond that of the traditional print and broadcast media. Today's new media—that is social media—has been a boon to the terrorist. Social media facilitates the planning and operational aspects of terrorist attacks.

Social media was not very popular and ingrained around the time of the 9/11 terrorist attacks. That terrorist plot was developed and planned overseas, and operatives were moved into place in the Unites States to execute the attacks. In today's world, that has changed. Terrorist organizations actively advertise, recruit, and communicate on social media websites such as Twitter, Facebook, Pinterest, and Instagram, providing information necessary for radical jihadists to strike around the globe without any direct support from the corporate entity.

Social media has also become a powerful recruiting tool. Command of social media allows terrorist organizations to attract and indoctrinate new recruits. Social media is especially appealing to young people, and the terrorists have taken full advantage of technology to advertise themselves in popular online venues such as YouTube, Twitter, and Facebook. Twitter, for instance, has become a favorite for fighters who live within the Islamic State. They openly share photographs and messages of beheadings, religious hatred, and the ongoing civil war in Syria. They openly try to get online followers to join the cause [5]. Professionally produced and disseminated propaganda videos, often accompanied by stirring music, show torture videos, videos of successful operations, and impassioned speeches urging youth to join the fellowship and cause of the movement.

Social media is particularly effective in targeting disenfranchised youth, providing them with disinformation that can be used to foster a radical jihadist movement and ultimately domestic attacks. For this group, the message may be to join us and kill your enemies before they kill you. For the disaffected, joining the terrorist cause brings the promise of fellowship in working on a common cause and the restoration of Islamic greatness. The savvy use of social media, with its message of a God sanctioned apocalyptic confrontation between Islam and the West, has given rise to self-radicalized jihadists around the world.

Immigrants and children of immigrants tend to identify less with their communities and home nations and rely more on their Internet community, which can easily be penetrated by terrorist propaganda. The Internet has allowed terrorists to leverage these popular sites visited by youth all over the world as a legitimate public relations and recruiting tool. The terror group Islamic State (IS) has been especially adept at utilizing social media to recruit members and intimidate its enemies. IS has used social media to secure and expand the Islamic State, in contrast to al-Qaeda who used social media to call for attacks upon the West. For example, the Global Islamic Media Front, al-Qaeda's media front, released a bomb making manual The Explosives Course via the Internet in 2010. The manual was posted on jihadi and extremist forums. Sympathizers soon posted links to this manual on their Facebook accounts. This is an excellent example of using the Internet to disseminate information to individuals and cells across the world. The fact the manual was published in English seems to confirm the tactic of trying to encourage homegrown radicalism in the western countries. The use of the Internet to disseminate this information is particularly effective when directed at the lone wolf who is motivated to act but lacks the wherewithal to attend overseas terrorist training camps.

1.7 Encryption

The technological advances involving interconnectivity and wireless communications have not only facilitated international business and communications, but it has also helped terrorists carry out their operations.

The use of powerful encryption technologies embedded in many consumer products allows users to have private conversations that cannot be monitored. End-to-end encryption scrambles the contents of messages as they pass through the Internet from one device to another. These apps allow person-to-person chats with absolute privacy, as the conversation is encrypted and only the users have the keys to unlock them. Without access to the devices sending or receiving the messages, the content cannot be read as it is all scrambled code. Therefore, these encrypted chats are extremely hard for law enforcement to track and monitor. This was made very clear when encrypted apps were found on recovered devices after the Paris attack in 2015 and the San Bernardino, California shootings in 2015.

The US Congress passed the Communications Assistance for Law Enforcement Act (CALEA, P.L. 103–414), and it was signed into law by President Clinton on October 25, 1994. Among other things, it required telecommunication carriers to assist law enforcement in executing authorized electronic surveillance. However, enhanced encryption measures have been put in place resulting in companies such as Apple and Google being unable to unlock their devices for anyone under any circumstances. There are concerns that enhanced encryption may affect law enforcement actions. For instance, following the December 2, 2015 terrorist attack in San Bernardino, California, law enforcement recovered a cellular phone belonging to one of the suspected shooters. FBI Director Comey testified before Congress 2 months later and indicated the FBI was unable to unlock the phone. On February 16, 2016, the US District Court for the Central District of California ordered Apple to provide reasonable technical assistance to assist law enforcement agents in obtaining access to the data on the cell phone. A decade after the passage of CALEA, federal law enforcement officials are again concerned their ability to conduct electronic surveillance was constrained because of constantly emerging technologies. CALEA is not viewed as applying to e-mail or data while stored on smartphones and similar mobile devices.

Social media has and will continue to be used for inspiring new terrorists, raising funds, and to spread radicalization and instructions for conducting attacks. The challenge for homeland security officials is to find the tricky balance between privacy concerns and civil liberties and collecting the information necessary to prevent future attacks.

1.8 Civil Liberty and Terrorism

The balance between intelligence gathering and civil liberty can be difficult because society often does not trust what the government does with information that is collected in the pursuit of counterterrorism.

Today's terrorists may live peacefully in our neighborhoods, enjoying the freedoms guaranteed by our Constitution—freedom of religion, freedom of speech, freedom to bear arms, and privacy from government snooping. The Constitution not only protects these rights, but also indirectly protects the right to develop terrorist attacks. In the United States, the First Amendment protects the right to privacy, civil rights, and civil liberties of citizens. The conflict arises in that as a whole the country, even though they fear radical jihadists, is not totally convinced that government intrusion into these personal rights are fully justified. Can the government execute unwarranted searches, or is that a violation of the Fourth Amendment? Can the government put tighter restrictions on obtaining weapons, or is that a violation of the Second Amendment?

This is arguably the toughest assignment for homeland security officials—balancing the need for security with the very basics of our freedom. How can these basic rights be respected while still trying to find the jihadists before they turn violent and execute their attack? In 2015, the US Customs and Border Patrol processed more than 382 million travelers at air, land, and sea ports of entry, and approximately 40 million immigrants live in the United States. Harder still is finding terrorists among the country's 330 million citizens and permanent residents. As of August 2016, Federal prosecutors have charged 100 men and women around the country in connection with their activities related to the IS. So far, 43 have been convicted. Men outnumber women in those cases by about 8 to 1. The average age of the individuals is 27 [6]. Approximately 80% are American citizens.

1.9 Terrorism Statistics

Incidents of Terrorism Worldwide

As shown in Table 1.1, in 2014, a total of 13,463 terrorist attacks occurred worldwide, resulting in more than 32,700 deaths and more than 34,700 injuries [7]. In addition, more than 9400 people were kidnapped or taken hostage.

Table 1.1 Terrorist Attacks and Casualties Worldwide by Month, 2014

Source: National Consortium for the Study of Terrorism and Responses to Terrorism: Annex of Statistical Information, 2015 [7].

On average, there were 1122 terrorist attacks, 2727 deaths, and 2899 injuries per month worldwide in 2014. There were 2.57 fatalities and 2.87 injuries per attack, including perpetrator casualties.

The months with the most terrorist attacks and combined casualties (deaths and injuries) were May, June, and July.

In particular, the high number of attacks in May coincides with the peak of spring fighting season in Afghanistan, where attacks increased more than 107% between February and May.

Contributing to the high number of fatalities in June, the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) carried out an attack on Badush prison in Mosul, Iraq on June 10, 2014, which resulted in the deaths of 670 Shia prisoners. As of the end of 2014, this was the deadliest terrorist attack worldwide since September 11, 2001.

Also in June, there were five attacks in which more than 50 people were kidnapped. Three took place in Iraq, one in Somalia, and one in Syria. In August, four attacks (three in Iraq and one in Nigeria) involved the abduction of more than 50 people.

The exceptionally high number of hostages reported in December is largely the result of the attack on the Army Public School in Peshawar, Pakistan. Assailants from Tehrik-i-Taliban Pakistan held more than 500 individuals hostage during a siege that killed at least 150 people.

More than 6200 of the 32,700 people killed in 2014 (19%) were perpetrators of terrorist attacks. Perpetrators were killed intentionally in suicide attacks, accidently while attempting to carry out attacks, or by security forces or victims responding to attacks.

Location

Terror is the new normal. According to the US Department of State, there were 13,463 terrorist attacks globally in 2014; that is an average of 1122 monthly, or 37 daily, or roughly 1 every 40 minutes. Although terrorist attacks took place in 95 countries in 2014, they were heavily concentrated geographically. More than 60% of all attacks took place in five countries (Iraq, Pakistan, Afghanistan, India, and Nigeria), and 78% of all fatalities due to terrorist attacks took place in five countries (Iraq, Nigeria, Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Syria).

Given the limitations of media coverage in Syria, the data presented here are conservative estimates of terrorism in Syria. Consistent with The National Consortium for the Study of Terrorism and Responses to Terrorism (START)’s practice of including in the Global Terrorism Database (GTD) only those attacks that have been verified by at least one well-regarded source, these statistics represent those incidents that were reported by independent news outlets.

Globally aggregated statistics do not represent uniform patterns worldwide. They are produced by diverse trends in violence and heavily influenced by events in several key locations. The statistical profiles in Table 1.2 illustrate many of these dynamics.

Table 1.2 Countries with the Most Terrorist Attacks, Fatalities, Injuries, and Hostages 2014

Note: India, which was among the five countries with the most attacks in 2014, ranked 13th in terms of fatalities. Syria, which was among the five countries with the most fatalities in 2014, ranked 14th in terms of attacks.

Source: National Consortium for the Study of Terrorism and Responses to Terrorism: Annex of Statistical Information, 2015 [7].

Attacks: Large increases in Iraq and Afghanistan, two countries that also experienced high number of attacks in 2013, comprise more than one-third (37%) of the 35% increase in total attacks worldwide in 2014 compared to 2013.

Fatalities: Large increases in Nigeria, Iraq, and Afghanistan, three countries that also experienced high number of fatalities due to terrorist attacks in 2013, comprise more than two-thirds (72%) of the 81% increase in total fatalities worldwide in 2014 compared to 2013. Also, approximately one-quarter (26%) of the increase in total fatalities was attributable to increases in perpetrator fatalities, which were especially prevalent in Iraq, Nigeria, and Syria.

Injuries: The total number of injuries due to terrorist attacks increased slightly (6%) in 2014. This was largely a product of various regional trends, including a 376% increase in injuries in Nigeria in 2014, and a 44% decrease in injuries in Pakistan in 2014 compared to 2013.

Hostages: Several countries observed large increases in the number of hostages taken in terrorist attacks in 2014. However, the largest increases took place in Iraq, Nigeria, and Syria, comprising more than two-thirds (68%) of the 201% increase in hostages worldwide in 2014 compared to 2013. This considerable increase in the total number of hostages taken by perpetrators of terrorist attacks is a result of a large increase in the number of attacks that involved any hostages as well as a large increase in the number of attacks that involved more than 100 hostages.

Four of the five countries that experienced the most terrorist attacks in 2014 were the same as those that experienced the most terrorism in 2013. The one exception was the Philippines, which experienced a 24% decline in attacks, and ranked 10th among countries with the most terrorism in 2014. Nigeria, which ranked seventh among countries with the most terrorist attacks in 2013, experienced a 114% increase in attacks and a 308% increase in fatalities in 2014.

Perpetrators

Information about perpetrators was reported in source materials for 46% of terrorist attacks in 2014. More than 250 organizations were named as perpetrators of terrorist attacks, including 33 organizations that had not previously been identified as perpetrators in the GTD.

In 30% of the attacks with information about perpetrator groups, the groups explicitly claimed responsibility. In the remaining attacks, source documents attributed responsibility to a particular group or groups based on reports from authorities or observers.

The perpetrator groups responsible for the most terrorist attacks in 2014 were the ISIL, the Taliban in Afghanistan, al-Shabaab, Boko Haram, and Maoists in India. These groups were also responsible for the most attacks in 2013. All five increased the frequency of their attacks in 2014, though at different rates.

Of the attacks for which perpetrator information was reported, 17% were attributed to ISIL (see Table 1.3). Although ISIL operated primarily in Iraq and Syria, the group expanded its influence geographically in 2014 by carrying out attacks in Lebanon and Egypt for the first time. In addition, several organizations based in other countries pledged allegiance to ISIL and self-identified as a province, chapter, or supporter of the Islamic State.

Table 1.3 Five Perpetrator Groups with the Most Attacks Worldwide, 2014

Source: National Consortium for the Study of Terrorism and Responses to Terrorism: Annex of Statistical Information, 2015 [7].

Among these five perpetrator groups, the average lethality of attacks carried out by ISIL (6.46 people killed per attack), the Taliban (4.07), and Boko Haram (16.86) were higher than the global average (2.57) in 2014. The average lethality of attacks carried out by al-Shabaab (2.46) was slightly lower than the global average. Attacks carried out by Maoist perpetrators in India were by far the least deadly and the least likely to be deadly, causing 0.63 deaths per attack.

All five of the most active groups markedly increased the number of hostages taken in 2014; however, the increases in hostage takings by ISIL and Boko Haram were exceptionally large. Attacks carried out by these two groups in 2014 involved more than 4300 hostages, 50% of all hostages taken in terrorist attacks worldwide in which the perpetrator group was identified.

Boko Haram also increased its use of suicide tactics in 2014, carrying out 31 suicide attacks, compared to three in 2013.

1.10 Purpose of Terrorism

The purpose of terrorism, as the name implies, is to terrify and spread fear and destruction. The randomness of an attack to inflict casualties on innocent victims is the very essence of terror—it can strike at any place and at any time and can adversely impact someone who had the misfortune to be at the wrong place at the wrong time.

Terrorism can also cause harm beyond physical injuries. The potential psychological damage suffered by a population should not be underestimated. The psychological harm not only affects those in the immediate area directly impacted by the terrorist attack, but can also adversely impact people far away from the actual attack. Consider how the psychological harm impacted the US airline industry after the 9/11 attacks. Many customers across the United States avoided flying when the airlines resumed their normal operating schedule on September 13 in fear of another similar attack.

Terrorism strikes at our core values—the right to life, peace, and security. Terrorism is a tactic used by an adversary to accomplish one of the five things:

Instill a sense of fear in a population.

Influence the policy of a government.

Affect the conduct of a government.

Get the affected population to change their daily routine.

Coerce or intimidate a population in furtherance of social, religious, or political objectives.

1.11 Goals of Terrorism

Terrorists can operate individually or in large groups and can perpetrate their attacks in different ways for different goals. Terrorist goals include the following:

Causing casualties (injuries and fatalities).

Damaging or destroying critical infrastructure.

Disrupting the economy.

Harassing, weakening, or embarrassing the government.

Discouraging tourism or investments due to perceived insecurity.

Getting people to change their daily routine or way of life.

Terrorist organizations remain intent on obtaining and using devastating weapons against the United States to cause casualties and economic damage. The development of more sophisticated weapons in the twenty-first century has allowed terrorists to kill more people from a greater distance. Many terrorist organizations are not concerned about killing large number of innocent victims indiscriminately, so precise targeting is not necessary. Suicide terrorism has reemerged, not because of lack of technology, but because suicide terrorism generates fear among the general population, and it allows for accurate, large-scale attacks without the use of sophisticated weapons and tactics. Suicide terrorists are not crazy but rather are extremely committed to their mission and see themselves as martyrs. Suicide bombers are often viewed as heroes; they believe that they will receive rewards in death. Their surviving family may receive both financial and psychological rewards for their sacrifice. Martyrdom is the perfect manifestation of jihad.

Terrorists worldwide have favored the old reliable, low-tech, high-impact weapons, such as vehicle bombs, suicide bombs, and automatic weapons, and will probably continue to do so. However, some terrorist organizations will increasingly exploit advances in science and technology as these technologies become more widespread and accessible to maximize their destructive impact. The more readily available and accessible these technological developments become, the more likely the terrorists will adapt them for nefarious purposes. Terrorist groups have embraced technology and are using the Internet and social media to formulate plans, recruit members, communicate between individual members and cells, raise funds, and spread propaganda. The enemy adapts. As we step up security, the terrorists shift tactics in response. As examples, the Tamil Tigers have used rudimentary stealth technology to mask their suicide speedboats, and Colombia's FARC (Revolutionary Armed Forces of Columbia) has deployed remotely controlled automobiles to deliver car bombs. The current generation of terrorists can learn their trade without traveling to a distant training camp in another country. They can train at home using materials broadcast over the Internet.

The disturbing fact is that the terrorist will change and adapt as precautions against attacks are implemented. Recent attacks suggest that some terrorists favor smaller-scale operations that employ simple technology, take less preparation, cost less, and require fewer operatives. The terrorists may be executing attacks that focus more on the psychological and economic effects resulting from smaller attacks than the mass casualties and damage caused by a large-scale event. Terrorism has become a strategic weapon. It is capable of disrupting foreign policy and peace initiatives and has become a force multiplier in certain regions of the world, causing discomfort and domestic unrest.

1.12 Case Study: Economic Effects of a Terrorist Attack

There was an immediate impact to the economy as a result of the September 11, 2001 terrorist attack. As an example, consider the economic effects the attack had on domestic and international markets. The US monetary loss as a result of the September 11 attack is estimated at $500 billion, besides the loss of a large number of jobs. The economy of lower Manhattan, which by itself is the third largest business district in the United States and with a 2015 gross state product of $1.44 trillion which would make New York City the 13th largest economy in the world, was devastated in the immediate aftermath of the attack. Approximately 30% (34.5 million square feet) of lower Manhattan office space was either damaged or destroyed. The attack resulted in $50–$70 billion in insured losses.

The opening of the New York Stock Exchange and NASDAQ was delayed after the first plane hit the World Trade Center North Tower, and the trading day was canceled and markets closed after the second plane hit the South Tower. The New York Stock exchange remained closed until September 17, 2001 due to damage to the communications facilities near the World Trade Center Complex. This closure of the US markets was the longest since the Great Depression of 1929. The London Stock Exchange and other stock exchanges around the world were also closed due to fear of additional terrorist attacks. When the US markets finally reopened on September 17, 2001, the Dow Jones Industrial Average stock market index fell 684 points, or 7.1%. This decline was the biggest ever 1-day point decline at that time. By Friday, September 21, 2001, the Dow Jones had dropped 1369.7 points, or 14.3%, its largest 1-week point drop in history. United States stocks lost $1.2 trillion in value for the week [8].

There has been even greater cascading economic effects caused the September 11 attack. The attacks compounded financial troubles being suffered by the airlines before the attacks. Washington, DC's Reagan National Airport was closed for 23 days due to its proximity to many potential targets in the Nation's capital. The commercial air space over North America was closed after the attack until September 13. When flights resumed, air travel decreased by approximately 20% due to several factors, including people's unwillingness to wait in long lines due to increased security measures and the psychological fear of flying due to the possibility of additional attacks involving airplanes. The airline industry lost $1.4 billion in revenue in the 2 day shutdown of the aviation system and a reduction of at least 30% in demand following the attacks [9]. On September 10, 2001, US airports handled 38,047 flights. On September 12, they handled 252 commercial flights. One week later (September 18) there were 34,743 flights [10]. Tourism in New York City plummeted. In the weeks following the attack, hotel occupancy fell to below 40%, and 3000 hospitality employees were laid off. It took 34 months for the hotel occupancy rates to return to the pre-9/11 levels. The 9/11 attacks also led to one of the biggest government spending programs in US history-the War on Terror.

The financial loss will continue to grow, as more and more first responders develop diseases related to their rescue and recovery work at the World Trade Center site.

1.13 Objectives of Terrorism

Terrorist groups exist for the purpose of planning and executing attacks to accomplish their mission. Included among the objectives of terrorism are:

Demonstrate the group's power over the population and government.

Show the existing government's lack of power to interfere or stop terrorist operations.

Exact revenge for perceived persecution and satisfy the group's vengeance.

Gain worldwide, national, or local publicity for the group's cause by attracting media coverage.

Terrorists need money, membership, and media to accomplish their objectives. Therefore terrorists depend on the media to publicize their attacks, and hence their cause, which will lead to more volunteers and financial support. Terrorist groups have become experts at leveraging the media to assist in their objectives. The worldwide media, perhaps unwittingly in some cases, contributes to terrorism. Terrorism depends on the masses listening, reading, and watching terrorist attacks unfold in real time. The terrorists need their attack to garner worldwide attention to have the desired impact; 24/7 media coverage helps achieve that goal. The end result is the media attention helps the terrorists’ recruiting and financing goals.

1.14 The Terrorism Challenge

Advanced warning of terrorist attacks remains difficult due to the terrorists’ operational security practices and their ability to take full advantage of the West's open and free society. Terrorists are fully aware that attacks lead to political fallout. That, combined with the likelihood that Western countries are prone to cut and run when sustaining casualties, ensures Islamic terrorists will factor political considerations into future attacks. Individual terrorist cells are now starting to finance their operations locally by criminal activity, primarily narcotics trafficking. Radical Islamic terrorism has mutated into a global insurgency, with no central leadership and many local branches. It is now a network of global relationships. In order to stop radical Islamic terrorism, the cycle of terrorist recruitment must be broken and the appeal of radicalism diminished. Efforts must be undertaken to ensure the jihad does not become self-sustaining.

History has shown the best way to defeat and demoralize an enemy is to bring the fight to their homes. An attack from covert operatives inside the homeland is the biggest threat posed to the United States.

1.15 The Evolution of Terrorism

The ways terrorist groups are organized, recruit new members, and are funded as well as their tactics have changed since the US War on Terror began in 2001.

Historically, terrorist groups had a central leadership core and local agents that were used to perpetrate attacks. All activities were tightly controlled by the central leadership core, including the recruiting and training of operatives, development of tactics, obtaining funding and equipment, and the selection of targets.

Once terrorist leadership and key personnel began to be targeted and eliminated in the War on Terror, the terrorist groups had to evolve lest they become disorganized and ineffective. The way terrorist groups are organized today is much different from the historical model. Today terrorist groups are organized much like a private enterprise, with a corporate office and franchises scattered throughout the world. The central leadership core, or corporate office, is located in a friendly country. This corporate office develops the philosophical doctrine, and provides the inspiration and motivation for their agents to execute attacks. Sometimes the corporate office may provide resources in terms of money, personnel, or equipment, but quite often the franchises are left to their own devices to obtain what is needed. The corporate office generally coordinates the recruiting of new agents, primarily through sophisticated and professionally developed recruiting materials that are disseminated through social media and the Internet. The attacks are generally developed by the franchise's individual agents on their own without much direction, coordination, or direct support from the corporate office. The franchises are able to select targets, obtain the necessary equipment, develop tactics, and execute the attack at a time and location of their choosing, without approval from the corporate office. There may a loose reporting structure back to the corporate office by the franchises, and in some cases, the franchises act on their own having no contact at all with the corporate office. Once an attack is executed, the corporate office will exploit whatever positive information resulted from the attack to facilitate further recruitment and funding for their operations.

Franchises are the individuals or groups located around the world that subscribe to the corporate philosophy, but operate independently planning and executing attacks, often without the knowledge, direction, support, or approval of the corporate office.

Terrorism has recently evolved from random violence to that of a more strategic perspective, in that terrorists are now using violence as a tool to exact ransoms or repatriate captured compatriots.

1.16 Terrorist Tactics

Just as the organization and administration of terrorist organizations has changed, so have the tactics. Large-scale spectacular attacks that take years of planning and use extensive resources are far and few between. Small-scale attacks by small cells or lone wolves, planned at the local level with equipment obtained through normally available commercial sources, have become the norm. Killing large number of innocent civilians has been replaced in some cases with kidnapping and hostage taking, to exploit the maximum public affairs benefit to bring worldwide attention to the organization and its cause and bringing in new recruits and new money. In some cases, hostages have been exchanged for money or compatriots who have been captured in the war on terror.

1.17 Difference between Terrorism and Insurgency

Insurgency is defined as a violent movement or rebellion within a country dedicated to overthrowing the government.

There is a significant difference between terrorism and insurgency. A key difference is that an insurgency is a movement—a political effort with a specific aim. This sets it apart from both guerilla warfare and terrorism, as they are both methods available to pursue the goals of a political movement. Another difference is the intent of the component activities and operations of insurgencies versus terrorism. There is nothing inherent in either insurgency or guerilla warfare that requires the use of terror. While some of the more successful insurgencies and guerilla campaigns employed terrorism and terror tactics, and some developed into conflicts where terror tactics and terrorism became predominant, there have been others that effectively renounced terrorism. The ultimate goal of an insurgency is to challenge the existing government for control of all or a portion of its territory, or force concessions in sharing political power. Insurgencies require the active or tacit support of some portion of the population involved. External support, recognition, or approval from other countries or political entities can be useful to insurgents, but is not required. A terror group does not require and rarely has the active support or even the sympathy of a large fraction of the population. Terrorism does not attempt to challenge government forces directly, but acts to change perceptions as to the effectiveness or legitimacy of the government itself. This is done by ensuring the widest possible knowledge of the acts of terrorist violence among the target audience. Insurgency need not require the targeting of non-combatants. Terrorists do not discriminate between combatants and non-combatants. Ultimately, the difference between insurgency and terrorism comes down to the intent of the actor.

Insurgency movements and guerilla forces can adhere to international norms regarding the law of war in achieving their goals, but terrorists are by definition conducting crimes under both civil and military legal codes [11].

An insurgency differs from terrorism in that it is directed primarily against a military force. An insurgency is an organized rebellion that engages in deliberate actions to cause the downfall of a governmental authority through destruction and armed actions. Insurgents are those who carry out an insurgency. Insurgents engage in regular or guerilla combat against the armed forces of the established government, such as by sabotage or harassment. Insurgents are in opposition to a government primarily in order to overthrow or obtain a share in government, to further a separatist or revolutionary agenda, or improve their condition.

Insurgent tactics and strategies vary widely, as well as the type of targets that insurgents attack. Raids are among the most common actions taken by insurgents. Some elements of an insurgency may use bombs, kidnappings, hostage taking, hijackings, shootings, and other types of violence to target the establishments’ power structure and other facilities with little regard for civilian casualties [12].

1.18 The Difference between a Terrorist Attack, a Criminal Event, and Suspicious Activity

Legally, terrorism is a crime and therefore the perpetrators (terrorists) are criminals.

Crime can be defined as any behavior that is unacceptable by way of the law, and causes harm to an individual or a group of individuals. There are several types of crimes, including:

Hate crime—when a perpetrator targets a victim because of their perceived membership in a certain social group, usually defined by racial group, religion, sexual orientation, disability, ethnicity, nationality, age, or sex.

Organized crime—is the transnational, national, or local grouping of centralized enterprises run by criminals for the purpose of engaging in illegal activity.

Personal crimes—offenses against a person that result in physical or mental harm, such as assault.

Property crimes—involve an interference with a person's right to use or enjoy property, such as larceny.

Sex crime—forms of human sexual behaviors that are crimes, such as rape.

Statutory crime—a violation of a specific state or federal statute, such as driving under the influence.

Violent crime—a crime in which the offender uses or threatens to use violence upon the victim, such as murder.

Terrorism has already been defined as the use, or threat of use, of violence in order to influence a target audience to take a particular action. Ordinary criminals are usually motivated by their personal needs and desires, and their criminal intent is to satisfy those. Terrorists have ideological motivations and their intent is to achieve a political, social, or religious change.

Terrorism is often symbolic, while criminal violence is often opportunistic. Criminals shun the spotlight after they commit their crime, while terrorists clamor for media coverage. Criminals generally commit crimes against individuals, whereas terrorists commit crimes against humanity. The critical difference between someone who commits criminal violence and a terrorist is their intent, means, motivation, and desired result.

Suspicious activity is something observed that causes a feeling that something is wrong or that someone is behaving wrongly. Instincts often play a part in helping to determine suspicious activity. Suspicious activity may not be related to terrorism or criminal activity. The key to recognizing suspicious activity is to recognize the difference between normal and abnormal activity. Relatives, friends, neighbors, or co-workers might notice a person's strange behavior, but be fearful of reporting this suspicious behavior to law enforcement due to familial, fear