Reliability of High-Power Mechatronic Systems 2: Aerospace and Automotive Applications: Issues,Testing and Analysis

By Abdelkhalak El Hami

This second volume of a series dedicated to the reliability of high-power mechatronic systems focuses specifically on issues, testing and analysis in automotive and aerospace applications. In the search to improve industrial competitiveness, the development of methods and tools for the design of products is especially pertinent in the context of cost reduction. This book proposes new methods that simultaneously allow for a quicker design of future mechatronic devices in the automotive and aerospace industries while guaranteeing their increased reliability. The reliability of these critical elements is further validated digitally through new multi-physical and probabilistic models that could ultimately lead to new design standards and reliable forecasting.

• Presents a methodological guide that demonstrates the reliability of fractured mechatronic components and devices
• Includes numerical and statistical models to optimize the reliability of the product architecture
• Develops a methodology to characterize critical elements at the earliest stage in their development

• Language: English
• Publisher: Elsevier Science
• Release date: Oct 17, 2017
• ISBN: 9780081024232

Book preview

Reliability of High-Power Mechatronic Systems 2

Aerospace and Automotive Applications: Issues, Testing and Analysis

Edited by

Abdelkhalak El Hami

David Delaux

Henri Grzeskowiak

Series Editor

Abdelkhalak El Hami

Table of Contents

Cover

Title page

Copyright

Foreword 1

Foreword 2

The World of Harsh Environments and High Reliability Demands: Challenges and Solutions

Preface

1: Accelerated Life Testing

Abstract

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Types of test

1.3 Overview of accelerated life testing

1.4 Principles, methodology, implementation of accelerated life testing

1.5 Methods and tools for exploiting accelerated life tests

1.6 Phases in the construction of a reliability validation plan

1.7 Examples

1.8 Standards

1.9 Conclusion

2: Highly Accelerated Testing

Abstract

2.1 Introduction to highly accelerated testing

2.2 Comparison of HALT versus ALT testing by fatigue

2.3 Comparison of accelerated life tests and highly accelerated tests

2.4 Standards

3: Reliability Study for Cuboid Aluminum Capacitors with Liquid Electrolyte

Abstract

3.1 Introduction and objectives

3.2 Characteristics of aluminum capacitors with liquid electrolyte

3.3 Parametric characterization

3.4 Reliability analysis [PIE 15]

3.5 Aging tests on components

3.6 Analysis and modeling

3.7 Conclusion and continuation

3.8 Appendix: notice aluminum electrolytic capacitor

4: The Reliability of Components: A New Generation of Film Capacitors

Abstract

4.1 Introduction

4.2 The reliability of components: a new generation of film capacitors. Types of film

4.3 Comparison

4.4 Parameters that affect the reliability

4.5 Highly accelerated test on film capacitors

4.6 Accelerated life test on film capacitors

4.7 Conclusions

5: Reliability and Qualification Tests for High-Power MOSFET Transistors

Abstract

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Reliability tests for high-power MOSFET transistors

5.3 Application of standard reliability tests to high-power silicon MOSFETs

5.4 Application of qualification tests to high-power SiC MOSFETs

5.5 Conclusion

6: Fault Diagnosis in a DC/DC Converter for Electric Vehicles

Abstract

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Model of the DC/DC converter

6.3 General-purpose methodology for determining and isolating defects

6.4 Conclusion

7: Methodology and Physicochemical Characterization Techniques Used for Failure Analysis in Laboratories

Abstract

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Failure analysis of electronic components

7.3 Experimental techniques of physicochemical analysis

7.4 Conclusion

8: Reliability Study of High-Power Mechatronic Components by Spectral Photoemission Microscopy

Abstract

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Conventional techniques for locating faults

8.3 Spectral photoemission analysis

8.4 Transistor analysis by spectral photoemission microscopy

8.5 Conclusion

List of Authors

Index

Copyright

First published 2017 in Great Britain and the United States by ISTE Press Ltd and Elsevier Ltd

Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, this publication may only be reproduced, stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means, with the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction in accordance with the terms and licenses issued by the CLA. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside these terms should be sent to the publishers at the undermentioned address:

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Notices

Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary.

Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.

To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.

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© ISTE Press Ltd 2017

The rights of Abdelkhalak El Hami, David Delaux and Henri Grzeskowiak to be identified as the authors of this work have been asserted by them in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A CIP record for this book is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress

ISBN 978-1-78548-261-8

Printed and bound in the UK and US

Foreword 1

Philippe Eudeline

Predicting and then guaranteeing the reliability of an electronic system is a major challenge for manufacturers in the automotive, aerospace and defense sectors in addition to those of railway, telecommunications, nuclear and health amongst others. However, above all it is important for us, the daily users of such equipment, who must have absolute confidence in the information being transmitted and decisions made in real time. The increasing development of connected objects (autonomous vehicles, home automations, etc.) will lead to a drastic reduction of human intervention in favor of an intervention by mechatronic systems. These systems will only be able to deploy if the users have absolute confidence in the reliability of the equipment.

This equipment will be decomposed according to its two major features. Firstly, in terms of the hardware which is mainly composed of electronic boards (coupled with the mechanical systems), and secondly, the real-time software that allows for the implementation of the said equipment and the achievement of the tasks expected of it.

Predicting and ensuring the reliability of electronic equipment is a task that is both immense and without end. On the one hand, the number and diversity of components used to achieve these cards is very high, on the other hand, the new features of such innovative equipment require multiple tests on their inherent reliability and robustness.

Before this immense work, a few industrialists (such as Thales Air Systems, Valéo, Safran, NXP) of SMEs (the likes of Areelis, MB Electronique, Ligeron, statXpert, Lescate, Serma, PAK), supported by private laboratories (including CEVAA, Analyses et Surface) and public entities (together with LNE, GPM, LAMIPS, INSA Rouen) have embarked on a process of setting up resources and skills dedicated to the reliability of high-powered mechatronic components and systems.

This association of complementary partners made its debut in the framework of the first program dedicated to reliability, AUDACE or "Analyse des caUses de DéfaillAnce des Composants des systèmes mécatronique Embarqués" (or its English equivalent: the analysis of the causes of defective components embedded in mechatronic systems). This initial project was a great success. It has made it possible to create strong links between the various partners and to set up methods of analysis and measurement that perform extremely well. However, at the same time, it also highlighted the immense scale of the task and the diversity of components and technologies to be mastered.

At the end of the first contract, the collective decided to continue the groundbreaking work through a second program: FIRST-MFP or "Fiabiliser et Renforcer des Systèmes Technologiques mécatroniques de forte puissance" (which translates in English as: improved reliability and strengthening of high power, technological, mechatronic systems); in order to address the components specific to electronic power. In effect, the concept of power (ranging from a few KW to several hundred KW). The electronics must be able to cope with the stresses that could otherwise lead to fatigue failures not commonly encountered in low power electronics. The digital modeling, multi-physical testing and the consideration of multiple variables of uncertainty, have led to the development of this follow-up research program: FIRST-MFP.

With competitiveness clusters of Astech and MOV’EO, the Aéronautique Normande NAE, the regions of Normandy and Ile de France, as well both the Chambers of Commerce for Rouen and Versailles, this program was able to be implemented and has since achieved exceptional results.

In order to share these results with not only the economic actors involved in the reliability of systems, but also with students in the fields of electronic, mechanical and material research, it was decided to record all of the results of this program and publish them in the format of a book.

In fact, given the richness of the results, it was decided that two books would be better suited to the task, and with this in mind, I would like to thank very warmly Misters Abdelkhalak El Hami, David Delaux and Henri Grzeskowiak for their remarkable work in the implementation of these two volumes, as well as all the participants in the FIRST-MFP program who spent many hours collating their results into a format that could be more easily presented in this production. As such, it should go without saying, that the essential information presented here does not remain the property of a few, but rather is shared by numerous engineers, technicians, researchers and students.

Volume 1 is devoted to the presentation of various issues and deals with the modeling and simulation aspects that are essential to the prediction of the performance reliability of future electronic systems.

Volume 2 is the compilation of aggravated and accelerated tests carried out on different types of components and high-power subsystems.

Together in these two volumes you will find information that is essential and indispensable for the innovation of future equipment that will be integrated into the cars, planes and helicopters of tomorrow.

I would like to thank all the contributors of this program as well as the financiers (both national and regional) without whom this project could not have succeeded. It is my deepest wish that the solid alliance which came about as a result of these two programs, Audace and FIRST-MFP, continue their association in view of the many emerging technologies whose reliability must be evaluated.

Foreword 2

Andre Kleyner

The World of Harsh Environments and High Reliability Demands: Challenges and Solutions

The importance of quality and reliability to a system can hardly be disputed. Product failures in the field inevitably lead to losses in the form of repair costs, warranty claims, customer dissatisfaction, product recalls, loss of sale, and in extreme cases, loss of life. Along with continuously increasing electronic content in vehicles, airplanes, trains, appliances and other devices, electronic and mechanical systems are becoming more complex with added functions and capabilities. Needless to say that this trend is making the jobs of design and reliability engineers increasingly challenging, which is confirmed by the growing number of automotive safety recalls. These recalls are triggering an increasing number of changes for preventative measures with OEMs and government regulators producing a number of functional safety standards and other government and industry regulations, all demanding unprecedented levels of quality, reliability and safety in future electronic systems. Besides the human life aspect of safety recalls, these automotive campaigns cost millions or sometimes billions of dollars, which can eventually put a company out of business.

The present book Reliability of High Power Mechatronic Systems, edited by A. El Hami, D. Delaux and H. Grzeskowiak, is intended to expand our knowledge in the field of reliability in general and in Automotive and Aeronautical applications in particular.

New developments in the automotive industry are focusing on three major directions: vehicle autonomy, connectivity and mobility. This brings forward further challenges and the need for further advancements in the areas of software reliability, automotive vision systems, vehicle prognostics, driver behavior, cyber security, advanced driver assistance systems, sensor fusion, machine learning and other related fields. On top of that, the ever-increasing demand for intelligent safety features and improved comfort in vehicles has led to a corresponding boom in mechatronics. The mechatronic systems (fusion of mechanical, electronic and computer systems) presented in this book are revolutionizing the automotive industry. Application of these devices in the automotive, aerospace, defense and other industries, where products are expected to be subjected to harsh environments such as vibration, mechanical shock, high temperatures, thermal cycling, high humidity, corrosive atmosphere and dust, adds another layer of complexity to the product design and validation process.

The goal of meeting the product specifications and the need to assess the future product’s reliability even before the hardware is built, brings forward the importance of understanding the physics of how devices work and especially how they fail. Physics of Failure (PoF) is a necessary approach to the design of critical components which often utilizes accelerated tests based on validated models of degradation. This understanding of failure modes and failure mechanisms is critical to a successful Design for Reliability (DfR) process as opposed to a more conventional test-analyze-and-fix approach which is still often practiced in many industries. DfR is the process of building reliability into the design using the best available science-based methods, which is quickly becoming a must in the age of relentless cost cutting and development cycle time reduction.

In the quest to reduce carbon emissions and save energy, the production of hybrid and electric vehicles has been continuously growing, accelerating further development of power electronics systems. This combined with the development of self-driven vehicles, will require more powerful advanced Integrated Circuits (ICs). The large packages and higher power dissipation of these advanced ICs present thermal and thermo-mechanical expansion-contraction fatigue challenges. The continuous trend of ICS’ feature size reduction potentially presents a reverse trend in reliability and longevity of these devices. Smaller and faster circuits with an increasing number of transistors cause higher current densities, lower voltage tolerances and higher electric fields, making ICs vulnerable and more susceptible to wear-out type failure mechanisms.

In applications of variable frequency motor drives applications commonly used in hybrid and electric vehicles, Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT) modules are widely used power semiconductor devices. The fast switching characteristics make IGBT-based converters more and more attractive for a variety of power electronics applications. The severe environmental conditions and the stringent requirements in terms of system availability and maintainability impose high reliability levels on single IGBT modules. An important requirement covered in this book (Volume 1: Simulation, Modeling and Optimization) is the ability to withstand power cycles. Hybrid and Electric vehicles experience a large number of power cycles (up to a million) during their life time with high voltage and/or high current and heavy transient loadings which cause temperature changes, leading to mechanical stresses that can result in a failure. Hence IGBTs are susceptible to thermo-mechanics activated failure mechanisms, in particular to the bond wire lift-off mechanism, leaving room for reliability improvement of IGBTs in a number of applications.

The reliability of individual components was brought back into focus with the proliferation of functional safety standards, where reliability prediction based on the failure rates of the individual components is required to assess the Safety Integrity Level (SIL) or ASIL for Automotive standards. It is important to note that meeting these SIL requirements often requires the failure rates to be in single or double digits FIT (failure per billion hours), which is 1–2 orders of magnitude lower than what was expected a couple of decades ago.

Despite continuous growth in automotive electronics, the consumer electronics industry is still the main driver of the IC market. This presents an additional challenge to the harsh environment industries, creating situations where it is often difficult to find automotive grade parts suitable to withstand high temperatures, vibration and other environmental stresses. This forces design engineers to search for new solutions, often adding air or liquid cooling of high power dissipating ICs, hence increasing the complexity of the system and making it difficult to accelerate the testing of these systems.

In some of the applications the maximum operating temperatures are now approaching maximum allowable temperatures for the operation of silicon circuits, thus making test acceleration more difficult and sometimes impossible. Therefore, degradation analysis and prognostics may become the way of product testing and validation in the future. Overall, the limitation of physical testing will lead to more reliance on modeling, requiring better understanding of internal design, failure modes and failure mechanisms, many of which are covered in volume 2 of this book (Volume 2: Issues, Testing and Analysis).

However, these apparent difficulties and the ever growing list of engineering challenges also makes the job of a reliability professional more motivating and exciting. It also facilitates growing influence of reliability professionals on the decision-making process during a product development cycle. However, despite its obvious importance and the continuous expansion of engineering knowledge, quality and reliability education is paradoxically lacking in today’s engineering curriculum. Very few engineering schools offer degree programs or even a sufficient variety of courses in quality or reliability methods. Therefore, the majority of reliability and quality practitioners receive their professional training from their colleagues on the job, professional seminars, journal publications and technical manuscripts, like this one. We hope that the readers will find this book helpful in exploring the expanding field of mechatronics and power devices, understanding how they work and how they fail, and ultimately helping them meet the numerous reliability and design challenges their industries will face for years to come.

Preface

Abdelkhalak El Hami; David Delaux; Henri Grzeskowiak July 2017

In relation to the perpetual search to improve industrial competitiveness, the development of the methods and the tools for the design of products appears to be a strategic necessity in relation to the crucial need for cost reduction. Nevertheless, a decrease in the cost of design should not impair the reliability of the new systems proposed which also need to progress significantly.

This book seeks to propose new methods that simultaneously allow for a quicker design of future mechatronic rupture devices at a lower cost, to be employed in the automotive and aerospace industries, all the while guaranteeing their increased reliability. On the basis of applications for new, innovative products, high power components and systems.

The reliability of these critical elements is further validated digitally through new multi-physical and probabilistic models that could ultimately lead to new design standards and reliability forecasting.

As such, this book subscribes to the field of embedded mechatronics, which can be understood as a key element in the competitiveness of companies located in the automotive and aeronautical sectors. This technology combines mechanics, electronics, software and control-command.

The combination of these technologies results in mechatronic systems. A system is a complex set of functions subject to randomness (triggering systematic errors, bit flips, hardware failures), which provides a defined service regardless of its internal state, the state of its environment and the level of stress applied.

The functional structure of systems (software and hardware) has become de facto complex and variable. Preventing and eliminating mistakes is an expected part of the development and verification processes. The potential causes of failure are manifold. They relate to hardware, software and development environments. Non-consistency, combinations of latent or dormant errors, depending on the state of the system and the complexity of the applications, make analysis difficult.

The processing of errors (detection and recovery), at the cost of increasing the complexity levels of the system, brings about a better likelihood of good behavior of the system.

The evaluation of the reliability performance (part of the RAMS performance of a product) of complex embedded systems requires the development of new approaches. In systems that integrate software, the reliable structure of functions depends on the software. The search for event sequences leading to system failure must therefore involve both software and hardware. The method should contribute to the qualitative and quantitative analysis of the safety of these systems and microsystems.

The modes of failure of critical components and mechatronic systems, to date, remain largely uncontrolled. To improve