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Movement, Exchange and Identity in Europe in the 2nd and 1st Millennia BC: Beyond Frontiers
Movement, Exchange and Identity in Europe in the 2nd and 1st Millennia BC: Beyond Frontiers
Movement, Exchange and Identity in Europe in the 2nd and 1st Millennia BC: Beyond Frontiers
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Movement, Exchange and Identity in Europe in the 2nd and 1st Millennia BC: Beyond Frontiers

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This collection of papers by an international chort of contributors explores the nature of the maritime connections that appear to have existed in the Transmanche/English Channel Zone during later prehistory. Organised into three themes, ‘Movement and Identity in the Transmanche Zone’; ‘Travel and exchange’; ‘Identity and Landscape’, the papers seek to articulate notions of frontier, mobility and identity from the end of the 3rd to the beginning of the 1st millennium BC, a time when the archaeological evidence suggests that the sea facilitated connections between peoples on both sides of the Channel rather than acting as a barrier as it is so often perceived today. Recent decades have since a massive increase in large-scale excavation programmes on either side of the Channel in advance of major infra-structure and urban development, resulting in the acqusition of huge, complex new datasets enabling new insights into later prehistoric life in this crucially important region. Papers consider the role of several key archaeologists in transforming our appreciation of the connectivity of the sea in prehistory; consider the extent to which the Channel zone developed into a closely unified cultural zone during later Bronze Age in terms of communities that serviced the movement of artefacts across the Channel with both sides sharing widely in the same artefacts and social practices; examine funerary practices and settlement evidence and consider the relationship between communities in social, cultural and ideological terms; and consider mechanisms for the transmission of ideas and how they may be reflected in the archaeological record.

Brings together leading scholars from the UK and northern Europe in a thought-provoking and revealing new examination of the relationship between communities in the ‘Transmanche Zone’ in the Bronze and Iron Ages. The premise is that the English Channel was a conduit for connectivity and exchange of ideas, artefacts and social practices and rather than a barrier or frontier that had to be overcome before such connections could be fostered.
LanguageEnglish
PublisherOxbow Books
Release dateJul 31, 2017
ISBN9781785707179
Movement, Exchange and Identity in Europe in the 2nd and 1st Millennia BC: Beyond Frontiers

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    Movement, Exchange and Identity in Europe in the 2nd and 1st Millennia BC - Anne Lehoërff

    Published in the United Kingdom in 2017 by

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    © Oxbow Books and the individual authors 2017

    Hardback Edition: ISBN 978-1-78570-716-2 (hardback)

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    Front cover: © Anne Lehoërff for BOAT 1550 BC.

    Contents

    Preface

    The political vocabulary of Europe in the early part of the 21st century has resonated with themes of boundary and difference, of boundaries between states, concepts of ‘them’ and ‘us’, a concern to resist change, to maintain the status quo. The concerns of today do not reflect the nature of the long sweep of European history, however. Archaeologists and historians have long known about the ebb and flow of people as they moved across the continent over the millennia, of the ever-changing and porous borders between groups of people, the exchange of goods, ideas and the evolution of identities over time.

    More particularly, the integration of professional archaeological research into the planning legislation of many European countries since the Valetta Convention for the Protection of the Archaeological Heritage of Europe in 1992 has resulted in an explosion of new knowledge about our European ancestors and the way they lived their lives. It was the recognition of the implications of this new data for the close maritime connections between peoples living in the Transmanche zone of northwestern Europe during the Bronze Age – around 3500 years ago – that led to the creation of the European project ‘Boat 1550 BC’ project in 2011. The project sought to bring together this new evidence of the strong ancient cultural links between the peoples of the region and present it to a wider audience. It brought together seven partners from three countries: the University of Lille 3/Maison européenne de l’homme et de la société de Lille, the Institut National de Recherches Archéologiques Preventives (INRAP), the Département du Pas-de-Calais and the town of Boulogne-sur-Mer from France, the Canterbury Archaeological Trust and Canterbury Christ Church University from England, and Ghent University from Belgium. It was financially supported by the European Union Interreg IV A ‘2 Mers Seas Zeeën’ programme and the Conseil régional du Nord-Pas-de-Calais.

    It was in the context of the ‘Boat 1550 BC’ project that a major academic conference was planned in collaboration with APRAB (l’Association pour la Promotion des Recherches Archéologiques sur l’Âge du Bronze) that brought together academic and professional archaeologists from all over Europe (and beyond) to discuss the new discoveries and research into the connections between people in the past. Its remit went beyond the study of the Transmanche zone and indeed the Bronze Age, but instead extended right across Europe, reflecting on a period of two millennia, from the middle of the 3rd millenium BC to the middle of the 1st millenium BC. The conference was held on 3–5 October 2012 at the Université du Littoral in the beautiful historic town of Boulogne-sur-Mer, France.

    The proceedings of the conference are a co-production of Oxbow Books and APRAB, with the financial support of the Ministère de la Culture et de la communication, INRAP, and the UMR (Unité Mixte de Recherche) 8164 Halma.

    The conference organisers would like to thank The Université du Littoral, the Centre de la Mer Nausicaa, and the service archéologique de la Ville de Boulogne for their assistance and the warm welcome extended to this international symposium.

    Thanks should also go to the conference steering committee for their work in making the conference a success; Sylvie Boulud, Peter Clark, Alain Henton, Isabelle Kerouanton, Thibault Lachenal, Emmanuelle Leroy-Langelin, Armelle Masse, Claude Mordant, Pierre-Yves Milcent, Théophane Nicolas, Brendan O’Connor and Rebecca Peake.

    Peter Clark, Mark Duncan and Jane Elder of the Canterbury Archaeological Trust are also acknowledged for their help in bringing this volume to publication.

    Taken together, these varied contributions offer a new and different perspective on the relationships between the peoples of Europe in the distant past, a perspective that we hope will find a wide audience and help inform all about the prehistoric context of our modern world and our appreciation of European identity today.

    Lastly, we pause to remember and celebrate the lives of two outstanding scholars of European prehistory who have recently passed away; Richard Darrah, perhaps best known for his ground-breaking work on the Dover Bronze Age boat, and Colin Burgess, whose magisterial command of the European Bronze Age inspired generations of archaeologists. We hope this volume represents a modest tribute to their outstanding contribution to our knowledge of Europe’s ancient history.

    1

    To think of leaving: mobility and identities in Western Europe during the Bronze Age

    Anne Lehoërff

    There are three kinds of men: the living, the dead and those who sail the sea

    Quote attributed to: Aristote, Plato or Anacharsis

    Keywords: mobility, exchange, frontiers, Bronze Age, identities

    Human mobility

    The Europe of ancient oral societies, before Classical Antiquity, is sometimes perceived as a closed world, stable – immobile even. This widespread perception, inherited from 19th century historiography and nourished by classical texts such as the Gallic War by Julius Caesar, seeks to limit the people of these bygone times to their birth places, when not conjuring up an image of their all too miserable way of life. However, nothing is less true than the idea of static communities over the millennia of Protohistory, from the Neolithic to the end of the Metal Ages (Lehoërff 2009; 2011).

    In 1992, the discovery of a Bronze Age boat in the port of Dover (Kent, UK) was a revelation for many, even if, for the archaeological specialists of this period, this type of discovery was only down to a matter of time (Clark 2004a; 2004b).

    For decades, archaeologists have studied human mobility through time (Scarre and Healy 1993). During prehistory (the Palaeolithic and Mesolithic periods), populations moved from one place to another following the rhythm of the places they lived, the seasons and the changing climate, seeking out food to eat and essential materials. This mobility, be it over short or long distances, leaves tenuous traces often difficult to interpret, precisely because they are inherent to this way of life. It constitutes nevertheless a scientific challenge for scholars studying these very ancient times, focussing on seasonality, for example, or on the relationship between people and their environment drawing together the threads of influences leading to Homo sapiens.

    Agricultural mobility

    The beginning of Protohistory heralded new relationships between individuals, space and time. In choosing to become farmers, people tied themselves to the land, but this did not mean that society in general was a prisoner. The process of Neolithisation itself is defined by movements of people, of ideas, by the adoption of new subsistence practices (production, storage, consumption) and more generally by the emergence of new types of societies. The creation of an agricultural Europe was ‘arythmic’ (Guilaine 2015), taking place over the course of millennia, but nevertheless permanent. The rhythm of this revolution, marked by episodes of stasis and then rapid expansion, was largely dependent on the rhythm of human movement and the capacity of communities to develop new ways of life within each new territory, some of which were already populated by nomadic or semi-nomadic groups. In this context, one cannot explain everything by imagining that people had chosen simply to walk (Lehoërff 2016a, 225–61). Sea level was already high because of the melting ice and coastal areas were thus far apart from one another. To cross these spaces without boats was impossible. It follows that the success of Neolithisation was dependant on seafaring. Taking this evidence into account we must recognise that people probably navigated the sea from very early on, from at least the Neolithic if not before (in Europe the first dug out boats date to the Mesolithic), which leads us to two questions: the first concerning the peoples of the past, and the second to the scholars who study them.

    The concept of space and the study of frontiers

    To travel, to cross borders and to create territories supposes that the individuals who took part in such an adventure understood space on two levels: the real and the symbolic. To dare to travel to known and unknown lands, by land and by sea, braving real and imaginary dangers (especially at sea), one must consider what lies beyond the visible horizon. It is of course difficult to address these questions for oral societies that have now disappeared. Some, however, have the temerity to tackle this fundamental subject. Working from archaeological data, together with ways of thinking about places or animals (such as birds in the sky or on the water), avenues of speculation can be proposed (Clark, Huth, this volume). Of course, this raises questions on the approaches, the methods available to archaeology, a science based on materiality, that allow it to approach the immaterial, the cognitive. When one thinks about ancient oral societies, long disappeared, that make up the greater part of our history, there are no written texts to clarify things for us. It is necessary to understand the meaning of the evidence, to interpret it, to translate it into a set of beliefs, into a language. Archaeologists are not totally bereft of help. Firstly, and most importantly, they have the archaeological record. They study and compare data, debate concepts, compare results, return to excavation, to the original data and thus work in a continually renewed dynamic. They fuel their own hypotheses with the results of others, those studying literate societies or those working in anthropology. They rule nothing out, whilst remaining wary of everything. The exercise can seem difficult. It is. But even if one does not have a mental map of maritime space of the coastal communities of the Channel, one imagines that they had some form of representation, with a system of reference points on land and sea. These clues go to demonstrate a knowledge of the stars (essential for the sailor!) and their cycles (how could it be otherwise in an agricultural society?). The Nebra disc (Germany), the metal chariots and pottery vessels decorated with birds, and the Scandinavian pictograms of boats are just some of the material evidence. So, if one has every reason to think that European Bronze Age societies had a representation of space, then one can also imagine that the question of the length of voyages was not ignored, that of the (more or less) rapid time needed to travel in contrast to the slow tempo of sedentary life in the agricultural world. Past communities gave much thought to the means of travel. Moreover, a boat like that of Dover, evidence of a craftsmanship of exceptional quality, shows that society (or at least certain individuals) had devoted an important investment to make possible the existence of such a vessel, in order to meet the essential requirements of travel (McGrail 2001; Pomey and Rieth 2005). Such expertise in boatbuilding did not come about overnight, but we know that navigation went hand in hand with the rise in sea levels in Europe and the creation of seas after the last glacial maximum and the beginning of global warming. Navigation is, profoundly, an integral part of recent humanity, of Protohistory (Cunliffe 2001; 2008), with all of its attendant constraints, from boatbuilding to knowledge of the maritime environment and its ever-present dangers. The Dover Boat provides direct proof of this reality at a particular moment in time.

    In order to understand the journeys undertaken, the movement of people and territorial identities, the archaeologist relies mostly on material data, albeit indirect. This is how the idea of a Transmanche zone came into being (see below). The houses, pits, ditches and tombs brought to light by excavation were compared and an internal logic became apparent: the structures and techniques demonstrated similar choices, common identities. This one can see in the buildings, in the important rites surrounding the treatment of the dead, and which can also resonate in everyday objects such as pottery or the more exotic, such as metal objects which necessarily require systems of exchange. In addition, the importation of the same foreign materials (such as amber) for the same use (small worked objects deposited in funerary contexts, etc.) underscore certain theories and comparisons (Jennings 2014). These clues, when put together, produce distribution maps, sometimes at different scales (the distribution of everyday pottery is not that of gold objects, which covers a much larger area) and demonstrate actual, real-life borders, not just those imagined by archaeologists today. Over decades of discoveries and research, this type of territorial reconstruction has become possible at precise moments in Protohistory, with continuities and discontinuities varying according to place and time. For the Atlantic zone, if each region demonstrates its originality little by the little, and with more and more clarity, the forms of continuity from the Middle and Late Neolithic to the Bronze Age can be made out (Harding and Fokkens 2013).

    The Atlantic Bronze Age and the Transmanche area

    Adopting a chronological framework for the period between the 3rd and the beginning of the 1st millennium BC meets two expectations: on one hand, it places the Bronze Age at the heart of ongoing debates consistent with the Dover Boat and its symbolism; on the other, its links this same Bronze Age to the periods (and realities) which come before and after it, the Neolithic on one side (Late Neolithic and Beaker Culture) and the Early Iron Age on the other. The discovery of a sewn plank boat in the port of Dover in 1992 throws a spotlight on the middle of the 2nd millennium BC, the Middle Bronze Age to use the technical term. This discovery was made during a period of European-wide reassessment of data relating to the Bronze Age. The development of preventive archaeology played its part but is not enough to completely explain the dynamic work during the 1990s and beyond (Chevillot and Coffyn 1990 for the concept of ‘Atlantic Bronze Age’; for more recent research, see the bibliographies in this volume). Since this date, excavations have proliferated, the methods of scientific analyses have been enriched, scientific analyses and funerary archaeology has acquired new approaches. The themes of study and research questions have evolved at the same time and particular attention is now centred on environments, territories and the opening up of large areas as well as the growing importance of palaeo-environmental studies to facilitate this perspective. The improved conditions for excavation and the interrogation of data are thus brought together to propose new theoretical models for study. We know that each generation of scholars sits on the shoulders of its predecessors. It is by combining old and new results that the concept of the ‘Atlantic Bronze Age’ has been identified as a coherent entity for a large area of Western Europe, within which the sea, from the Atlantic to the North Sea, plays a key role.

    Fig. 1.1. Map of Europe inverted/Carte, Europe inversée (Belin 2016, 230).

    Today, a new generation of scholars has joined the ranks of their teachers bringing with them a fresh integrative approach to the subject (Matthew, Milcent, this volume). In this vast Atlantic horizon, the boat discovered in Dover, recent excavations in the south of Britain, the coastal areas of Belgium, the north of France to the shores of Normandy, brings one to concentrate one of the foci of spatial analyses of the ‘Atlantic Bronze Age’ (which is also discussed) on the Transmanche area (Brun, Needham, Marcigny et al., this volume). Put into the perspective of the history of research (De Mulder and Bourgeois, Leclercq and Warmenbol, this volume), the recent data reinforce the idea of a common identity on either side of this narrow stretch of sea that boats, products of exceptional craftsmanship, can cross relatively easily. Furthermore, archaeology invites us to reconsider the idea of a border that has long been put forward as ‘natural’. This notion can be applied to the sea (either an obstacle or a routeway), but also to other landscape features which have equally been presented or understood as barriers, such as rivers or mountains (David-Elbiali, Huth, this volume). The study of societies over the longue durée, and in particular work on the movement of people, travel and the successive creation of territories and their shifting but never impassable borders, show that geographical determinism comes up against human free will and it is often the latter that prevails. During the 2nd millennium BC people, goods and ideas circulated over great distances. Links can be identified between the coastal areas of Portugal or Brittany with Ireland and as far north as Scandinavia. The similarities of practices and objects (especially metal objects) are unequivocal. At the scale of the narrow passage between the Channel and the North Sea, the proximity of the two facing coasts is even more marked. Exemplified by the similarities in prestigious objects (made out of gold for example), the common identity of this Transmanche zone can be seen in the choice of dwelling (Leroy-Langelin et al., this volume), funerary practices (Buchez et al., Billand et al., Issenmann et al., this volume) and at certain times, pottery (Buchez et al., Manem, Henton and Buchez, this volume).

    The European project ‘BOAT 1550 BC’ provided an opportunity to assess the results in the context of the history of research during the many conferences of the project (2011–2014) and even after (Lehoërff 2016b). It has also allowed greater public awareness of old and new data brought together in a travelling exhibition in three languages (Lehoërff 2012). One of the themes specifically addressed the movement of people and voyages. The visitors, themselves mainly from the modern-day Transmanche area, were asked to think about the idea that, 3500 years ago, the sea was a route of communication and not a supposedly natural barrier. Pushing aside preconceived ideas and showing how inappropriate they are for our distant ancestors, was a clearly stated and even sought after desire, using the methods and scientific results from archaeology alone. Children were specifically targeted (in the exhibition and with the teaching kit) with a clear aim; to encourage future citizens to think about the question of space, of territories and of people’s responsibility in their creation. The project therefore included a strong emphasis on the sharing of knowledge and the links between societies of the past and those of today. Led by scientists, it also included a more specialised presentation, showing hitherto unseen results and syntheses that open up the way to new research, probably less accessible to the general public but rather dedicated to specialised archaeologists. This was the essence of the Boulogne-sur-Mer conference in 2012 (this volume) and the Dover conference in 2013: to make accessible the fruits of this research.

    Current work on human mobility

    To conclude, the proceedings of this international conference will be published at a time when the question of human mobility has never been more topical. And with mobility comes the question of borders. The archaeologist is not responsible for resolving the issues of the modern world except for one notable exception: when the past physically intersects with the world of today.

    More generally, the archaeologist’s work is to understand the past, to give voice and words to people who are now silent, to shine a light on their history by way of buried or submerged finds, to bring knowledge to contemporary society and to put into perspective – over the longue durée – the phenomena whose traces are archaeological.

    Archaeologists would however fail in their mission if they allowed us to believe that societies were in some way ‘set down’ in one place forever. Communities started to permanently claim territories about 8000 years ago in a Europe whose borders and territorial limits have not stopped moving since that time, at varying rhythms and over different spaces. The notion of irrevocable permanence does not exist within the perspective of the longue durée. At best, a period of relative stability can equate to a certain historical reality. In this context, the definition of borders becomes an ongoing territorial and social challenge. There is no evidence in relation to this question. Archaeology stresses that, for millennia at least, from the beginning of the Neolithic at the dawn of Protohistory, territories and borders are human, cultural and political constructions which constitute very strong elements of power. Nothing exists in a ‘natural’ state, written in the landscape. Natural features can create lines, ways and obstacles but not impassable barriers. Nothing, furthermore, in the reality of the shifting territories on the scale of human history (tens of thousands of years for the most recent ‘us’, Homo sapiens) could justify any form of legitimisation of original territories. In addition, has the (very) recent history of the last centuries, highly concentrated and complicated, succeeded in creating a form of spatial division whose maintenance in a crowded world can be preserved by political and territorial choices and a desire for peace?

    Human society moves across the land, the sea or the mountains and creates and recreates its territories in relation to a moment in time and in accordance with its needs and possibilities. Nothing, a priori, might let us suppose that around 1500 BC the stretch of water between Britain and the continent was only a place of passage between two very similar and very close coastal worlds. The archaeological record has imposed this reality, contrary to what was expected, especially when considering today’s difficulties. Managing a cross-border project which emphasised this very long history has thus been a good scientific lesson. Working together as a group drawn from three countries on the ‘BOAT 1550 BC’ project (France, Britain and Belgium), which was broadened internationally for the conference on voyaging in Europe between the 3rd and the 1st millennium BC, has also been an important human engagement. At the end of the project, one must draw some lessons about weaving a link between the past and the future. In particular, we must call for vigilance, so as not to oversimplify complex human realities that cannot be understood either in their crude immediacy nor the red herring of an obsession with ‘origins’, something which Marc Bloch had good reason to be wary of!

    Bibliography

    Bloch, M. [1941] (1974) Apologie pour l’histoire ou le métier d’historien. Paris, Armand Colin.

    Chevillot, C. and Coffyn, A. (eds) (1990) L’âge du Bronze Atlantique: ses faciès, de l’Ecosse à l’Andalousie et leurs relations avec le bronze continental et la Méditerranée. Actes du 1er Colloque du Parc Archéologique de Beynac, 10–14 Septembre 1990. Beynac.

    Clark, P. (2004a) The Dover Bronze Age Boat. London, English Heritage.

    Clark, P. (ed.) (2004b) The Dover Bronze Age Boat in context. Oxford, Oxbow Books.

    Cunliffe, B. (2001) Facing the Ocean: The Atlantic and its Peoples. Oxford, Oxford University Press.

    Cunliffe, B. (2008) Europe Between the Oceans. Themes and Variations: 9000 BC–AD 1000. New Haven-London, Yale University Press.

    Guilaine, J. (2015) La seconde naissance de l’homme. Le Néolithique. Paris, Odile Jacob.

    Harding, A. F. and Fokkens, H. (eds) (2013) The Oxford Handbook of the European Bronze Age. Oxford, Oxford University Press.

    Jennings, B. (2014) Travelling Objects: Changing Values. Oxford, Archaeopress.

    Lehoërff, A. (2009) Les paradoxes de la Protohistoire française. Annales HSS, Septembre-Octobre 2009, 5, 1107–1134.

    Lehoërff, A. (2011) L’Âge du bronze est-il une période historique? In D. Garcia, (ed.), L’Âge du bronze en Méditerranée. Recherches récentes, 13–26. Paris, Errance.

    Lehoërff, A. (ed.) (2012) Par-delà l’horizon, Sociétés en Manche et mer du Nord il y a 3500 ans/Beyond Horizon. Societies of the Channel and North Sea 3500 years ago/Voorbij de Horizon. Samenlevingen in Kanaal en Noordzee 3500 jaren geleden, avec la collaboration de J. Bourgeois, P. Clark, M. Talon. Paris, Somogy, Editions d’art.

    Lehoërff, A. (2016a) Préhistoires d’Europe. De Neandertal à Vercingétorix. –40 000/–52. Paris, Belin (collection ‘Mondes anciens’).

    Lehoërff, A. (2016b) L’Âge du bronze en Manche et mer du Nord. Vingt ans d’études, des découvertes archéologiques à la réalisation du projet européen BOAT 1550 BC, Institut de France, Académie des inscriptions et Belles Lettres, 30 janvier 2015. CRAI, février 2016, 187–206.

    McGrail, S. (2001) Boats of the World from the Stone to Medieval Times. Oxford, Oxford University Press.

    Pomey, P. and Rieth, É. (2005) L’archéologie navale, Paris, Errance (‘Archéologiques’).

    Scarre, C. and Healy, F. (eds) (1993) Trade and Exchange in Prehistoric Europe. Oxford, Oxbow Monograph 33.

    «Au miroir des voyages: mobilités et identités en Europe occidentale à l ’Âge du bronze»

    Anne Lehoërff

    « Il y a trois sortes d’hommes, les vivants, les morts, et ceux qui vont sur la mer »

    Citation attribuée à : Aristote, Platon ou Anacharsis

    Mots-clés: mobilité, échanges, frontières, l’Âge du bronze, identités

    Mobilités humaines

    L’Europe des sociétés orales très anciennes, antérieures à l’Antiquité, est parfois perçue comme un monde fermé, stable, voire immobile. Cette vision populaire, héritée d’une historiographie bâtie au XIXe siècle et nourrie de textes antiques comme La guerre des Gaules de César, cantonne volontiers les individus de ces époques reculées dans leur lieu de naissance quand ce n’est pas également dans des cadres de vie assez miséreux. Pourtant, rien n’est plus faux que cette image de sociétés statiques au long des millénaires de la Protohistoire, du Néolithique à la fin des âges des métaux (Lehoërff 2009; 2011).

    En 1992, la découverte fortuite d’un bateau de l’Âge du bronze dans le port de Douvres (Kent, Angleterre) fut une révélation pour certains. Les archéologues spécialistes de cette époque, eux, y étaient préparés (Clark 2004a; 2004b).

    Depuis des décennies, les archéologues suivent la mobilité des hommes à travers le temps (Scarre and Healy 1993). Durant la Préhistoire (Paléolithique et Mésolithique), les populations se déplacent au rythme des implantations, des saisons et des changements climatiques, des approvisionnements alimentaires et de matériaux indispensables. Cette mobilité laisse des traces ténues et délicates d’interprétation, précisément car elle est inhérente au mode de vie, sur de courtes ou de longues distances. Elle constitue néanmoins un enjeu scientifique actuel pour les chercheurs travaillant sur ces temps très anciens, préoccupés des saisonnalités par exemple ou des modes de relations entre ces hommes et les milieux, intégrant les filiations d’implantation jusqu’à Homo sapiens.

    Mobilités paysannes

    Les débuts de la Protohistoire ouvrent à de nouveaux rapports entre les individus l’espace et le temps. En choisissant de devenir paysan, l’homme s’attache à la terre, ce qui ne signifie aucunement que la société dans son ensemble en est prisonnière. Le processus lui-même de la néolithisation s’inscrit dans un mouvement des hommes, des idées, d’adoption de nouveaux moyens de subsistance (production, conservation, consommation) et plus globalement de types de sociétés. La création d’une Europe agricole s’est faite de manière arythmique (Guilaine 2015), au cours de plusieurs millénaires, mais de manière définitive. Le rythme de cette révolution, marquée par des temps lents et des accélérations, a été largement tributaire de celui des déplacements des hommes et de leurs capacités à développer de nouveaux modes de vie à l’échelle de chaque territoire, pour certains déjà habités par des populations nomades ou semi-nomades. Dans ce cadre, si les hommes ont pu choisir tout simplement la marche à pied, ce mode de déplacement est insuffisant pour tout expliquer (Lehoërff 2016a, 225–61). Le niveau des mers était alors déjà partiellement remonté en raison de la fonte des glaces et les côtes s’étaient alors éloignées les unes des autres. Franchir ces espaces sans bateau a été impossible. Aboutir la néolithisation sans les voies de mer l’a été tout autant. Devant cette évidence, il faut donc admettre que les hommes ont navigué très tôt en mer, au moins depuis le Néolithique, et peut-être même avant (les pirogues sont connues dès le Mésolithique en Europe), ce qui conduit à deux types d’interrogations : les premières du côté des hommes du passé, les secondes de celui des chercheurs qui les étudient.

    Concevoir les espaces et étudier les frontières

    Voyager, franchir des frontières, créer des territoires suppose, de la part des individus qui se lancent dans une telle aventure, une représentation des espaces de deux ordres : réelle et symbolique. Il faut avoir envisagé ce qui se trouve au-delà de l’horizon visible, à terre comme en mer et oser se lancer dans des mondes connus ou inconnus, en bravant les dangers imaginaires et réels, surtout en mer. Il est bien sûr très délicat d’aborder ces questions pour des sociétés orales disparues. Certains, pourtant, osent traiter de ce sujet essentiel. À partir des données archéologiques associés aux modes de représentations de lieux ou d’animaux (tels les oiseaux dans le ciel ou sur les eaux), des pistes de réflexion peuvent être proposées (Clark, Huth, dans ce volume). Bien sûr, cela ouvre des questionnements sur les moyens, les méthodes possibles de l’archéologie, science d’une certaine matérialité, pour aborder l’immatériel, le cognitif. Lorsque l’on étudie les sociétés orales anciennes et disparues, qui constituent notre histoire la plus longue, aucun écrit ne vient nous éclairer. Il faut concevoir le sens des formes produites, les interpréter, les traduire d’une certaine manière en des croyances, un langage. Les archéologues ne sont pas totalement démunis pour y parvenir. Bien sûr, tout d’abord, et de manière essentielle, ils ont à leur disposition la documentation archéologique. Ils étudient les données, les comparent, renversent les points de vue, confrontent les résultats, reviennent au terrain, aux données premières et travaillent ainsi dans une dynamique sans cesse renouvelée. Ils nourrissent aussi leurs propres hypothèses des résultats d’autrui. De ceux qui travaillent sur des sociétés de l’écrit ou de ceux qui travaillent en anthropologie. Ils ne s’interdisent rien, en se méfiant de tout. L’exercice peut sembler difficile. Il l’est. Mais, même si l’on ne possède pas la carte mentale des espaces maritimes des sociétés littorales de la Manche, on conçoit qu’elles en aient eu une forme de représentation, avec un système de repères, sur terre et en mer. Des indices concourent pour démontrer une connaissance des astres (repères essentiels du marin!), des cycles (comment pourrait-il en être autrement dans une société agricole ?). Le Disque de Nébra (Allemagne), les chars métalliques et céramiques surmontés d’oiseaux ou les pictogrammes scandinaves de bateaux n’en sont que la trace matérialisée. Si l’on a donc toutes les raisons de penser que les sociétés de l’Âge du bronze européen avaient une représentation des espaces, on peut également concevoir que la question des durées de voyage n’était pas ignorée, celle du temps (plus ou moins) rapide du déplacement en opposition au temps long de la vie sédentaire de ce monde paysan. De manière directe, la question des moyens a été également, et visiblement, prise en considération par les hommes du passé. Plus encore, un bateau comme celui de Douvres, qui atteste un savoir-faire artisanal d’une qualité exceptionnelle, démontre que la société (ou certaines d’entre elles au moins) a consacré un investissement important à rendre possible l’existence d’une telle embarcation, pour répondre à des nécessités jugées primordiales de voyage (McGrail 2001 ; Pomey et Rieth 2005). Un tel art de la batellerie n’est pas né en un jour, mais on sait que la navigation accompagne la remontée des eaux en Europe et la création des mers après le maximum glaciaire et le début du réchauffement. Naviguer fait, profondément, partie de l’humanité récente, celle de la Protohistoire (Cunliffe 2001 ; 2008), avec toutes les contraintes que cette pratique inclut, de la fabrication des bateaux, à la connaissance des milieux maritimes et de leurs dangers permanents. Le bateau de Douvres constitue, juste, une preuve directe de cette réalité à un moment particulier.

    Pour comprendre les voyages, les déplacements, et les identités territoriales, le plus souvent, le travail archéologique s’appuie sur une documentation matérielle, mais indirecte. C’est ainsi que l’idée d’une aire transmanche a vu le jour (voir infra). Mises au jour lors de fouilles, les structures de maisons, de fosses et fossés, de sépultures sont comparées et des logiques apparaissent : des formes et des techniques attestent des choix similaires, des identités communes. Ce que l’on peut voir dans les constructions, dans des gestuelles aussi fortes que la prise en charge des défunts, peut également avoir des échos dans des objets du quotidien telles les céramiques, ou plus exceptionnels, en particulier métalliques qui impliquent nécessairement des échanges. En outre, des importations de matériaux exogènes de même type (de l’ambre par exemple), pour des usages identiques (des petits mobiliers travaillés, déposés dans des sépultures, etc.) renforcent certaines thèses, certains rapprochements (Jennings 2014). Des indices, mis en faisceaux, livrent des cartographies de lieux, parfois avec des échelles différentes (la carte des céramiques du quotidien n’est pas celle des objets en or qui couvre une superficie beaucoup plus importante) et mettent en évidence des frontières vécues, réelles, et non seulement imaginés par les archéologues d’aujourd’hui. Au terme de décennies de découvertes et de recherches, ce type de reconstitutions territoriales devient possible pour bien des moments de la Protohistoire, avec des continuités et des discontinuités selon les lieux et les époques. Pour ce qui de l’espace atlantique, si chaque espace régional affirme de plus en plus, et de mieux en mieux, ses originalités, des formes de continuité entre Néolithique moyen et final et Âge du bronze existent (Harding and Fokkens 2013).

    Bronze atlantique et espace transmanche

    Adopter un cadrage chronologique entre le IIIe millénaire et le début du Ier millénaire répond à deux attentes : d’une part, placer l’Âge du bronze au cœur des débats, en cohérence avec le bateau de Douvres et la symbolique qu’il incarne ; d’autre part, lier ce même Âge du bronze avec les périodes (et les réalités) qui l’encadrent, Néolithique d’un côté (final ici et Campaniforme) et premier Âge du fer de l’autre. La découverte d’un bateau à bords cousus en 1992 dans le port de Douvres a jeté un coup de projecteur sur le milieu du IIe millénaire avant notre ère, le Bronze moyen dans les terminologies spécialisées. Cette découverte s’est faite dans un contexte de renouvellement de la documentation relative à l’Âge du bronze de manière globale en Europe. L’essor de l’archéologie préventive n’y est pas étranger mais il n’est pas suffisant pour expliquer de manière exhaustive le dynamisme des travaux dans ces années 1990 et au-delà (Chevillot et Coffyn 1990, pour le concept de « Bronze atlantique » ; pour les travaux plus récents, voir bibliographies dans ce volume). Depuis cette date, les fouilles se multiplient, les méthodes s’enrichissent de moyens d’analyses, l’archéologie funéraire se dote de nouveaux types d’approches. Les thématiques, les problématiques de recherche évoluent également et une attention particulière est désormais accordée aux milieux, aux territoires, les ouvertures de larges surfaces comme la place grandissante du paléoenvironnement facilitant cette perspective. Les conditions sur le terrain, et dans l’exploitation de la documentation, sont donc alors réunies pour proposer de nouveaux modèles théoriques de réflexion. On le sait, chaque génération de chercheurs est portée sur les épaules de ses prédécesseurs. C’est en faisant la synthèse des anciens et des nouveaux résultats que le concept de « Bronze atlantique » a ainsi été précisé comme entité cohérente pour un large espace occidental européen, au sein duquel la mer, de l’Atlantique à la Mer du nord joue un rôle clef.

    Aujourd’hui, une nouvelle génération de chercheurs est venue rejoindre celle de ses maîtres et permet des regards croisés sur le sujet (Matthews, Milcent dans ce volume). Dans ce vaste horizon atlantique, le bateau mis au jour à Douvres, les fouilles récentes dans le sud de l’Angleterre, la Belgique littorale, le Nord de la France jusqu’aux abords de la Normandie, invitent à resserrer une des focales d’analyse spatiale du ‘Bronze atlantique’ (luimême discuté) sur l’espace transmanche (Brun, Needham, Marcigny et al. dans ce volume). Mises en perspective dans une histoire de la recherche (De Mulder et Bourgeois, Leclercq et Warmenbol dans ce volume), les données récentes renforcent l’idée d’une identité de part et d’autre de ce bras de mer, finalement étroit, que les bateaux, produits d’un savoir-faire exceptionnel, franchissent relativement aisément. Plus encore, la documentation archéologique invite à repenser la notion de frontière que l’on a tant cherché à nous proposer comme « naturelle ». La question se pose bien sûr pour la mer (obstacle ou lieu de passage), mais également pour toutes ces composantes des paysages qui ont été présentées, appréhendées comme des barrières telles les rivières ou les montages (David-Elbiali, Huth dans ce volume). L’étude des sociétés sur la longue durée, et en particulier les travaux sur les déplacements, les voyages, les créations successives des territoires et de leurs frontières mouvantes mais jamais infranchissables, démontrent que le déterminisme géographique se heurte à la volonté des hommes, et que cette dernière semble régulièrement l’emporter. Au IIe millénaire avant notre ère, les hommes, les biens et les idées circulent sur de très grandes distances. On identifie des liens entre la façade maritime du Portugal ou de la Bretagne avec l’Irlande et jusqu’en Scandinavie. Les similitudes de pratiques ou de mobiliers (en particulier métalliques) sont explicites. À l’échelle de cet étroit passage entre Manche et Mer du nord, la proximité entre les deux littoraux qui se font face est plus marquée encore. Perceptible dans des analogies de mobiliers prestigieux (en or par exemple), l’identité commune de cet espace transmanche se mesure dans les choix d’habitation (Leroy-Langelin et al., dans ce volume), les pratiques funéraires (Buchez et al., Billand et al., Issenmann et al., dans ce volume), les données céramiques à certains moments (Buchez et al., Manem, Henton et Buchez dans ce volume).

    Le projet européen « BOAT 1550 BC » a été l’occasion de présenter un état des résultats, replacés dans l’histoire de la recherche, dans le cadre de nombreuses conférences dans le temps du projet (2011–2014) et même au-delà (Lehoërff 2016 b). Il a permis également de porter à connaître, pour un public large, des données anciennes et nouvelles de manière croisée dans le cadre d’une exposition internationale, trilingue et itinérante (Lehoërff 2012). Une des thématiques portait précisément sur les déplacements et les voyages. Les visiteurs, pour l’essentiel eux-mêmes habitants de l’espace transmanche actuel, étaient invités à s’interroger sur la mer comme lieu de communication il y a quelque 3,500 ans et non comme barrière supposée naturelle. Le fait de bousculer les idées reçues et de démontrer leur caractère erroné pour nos lointains ancêtres relevait d’une volonté clairement affirmée, voire recherchée, en prenant appui sur les méthodes et les résultats scientifiques de la seule archéologie. Une attention toute particulière avait été accordée au public enfant (dans l’exposition, puis le kit pédagogique), dans une perspective assumée : faire réfléchir les futurs citoyens sur la question des espaces, des territoires et de la responsabilité des hommes dans leur construction. Le projet incluait donc un axe fort tourné vers le partage de la connaissance et les liens entre les sociétés d’hier et celles d’aujourd’hui. Mené par des scientifiques, le projet ne pouvait pas se passer également une réflexion spécialisée, proposant des résultats inédits et des synthèses ouvrant la voie vers de nouveaux travaux, de fond, moins accessibles sans doute au grand public mais dédiés plutôt aux archéologues spécialisés. C’est tout l’enjeu du colloque de Boulogne-sur-Mer de 2012 (ce volume), comme celui de Douvres en 2013 : rendre accessible le fruit de ces travaux.

    L’actualité des mobilités humaines

    En forme de conclusion, on pourra dire que la question des mobilités humaines n’a jamais semblé autant d’actualité qu’au moment où paraissent les actes de ce colloque international. Et avec les mobilités, la question corolaire des frontières. L’archéologue n’a pas pour mission de résoudre les enjeux du temps contemporain, à une exception près, notable, qui engage alors sa responsabilité : lorsque le passé croise, matériellement, le monde d’aujourd’hui. De manière plus générale, son travail est de comprendre le passé, de redonner la parole aux hommes qui se

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