The Lives of the Artists (Volume II of III)

By Giorgio Vasari

Giorgio Vasari's biographical collection "The Lives of the Artists" is one of the most frequently cited art history books since the 16th century. It is also the first comprehensive book on art history ever created. In the work, Vasari brings together facts, knowledge, and sometimes gossip about almost 200 Renaissance artists. Most of the biographies are focused on Florentines and Romans, though Vasari also wrote about other European artists. "The Lives of Artists" not only discusses the importance of the artists, but it also serves as a book of art criticism. Vasari looked at the artists' paintings in minute detail, describing the positive and negative aspects of the artistry as well as the quality of the work. "The Lives of the Artists" has not escaped criticism, though. Many scholars and historians realize that Vasari's information was not always completely accurate; with the lesser-known artists, he flubs dates and other minor information. Vasari also sometimes invented some information and gossip about the artists. However, many have argued that the false information, or gossip, is truthful in spirit, even if the actual events did not happen. Regardless, "The Lives of Artists" is still one of the best art criticism and art history books in the genre, and it provides a valuable look at how the leading artists of the Renaissance helped to shape and redefine the art of their time. Contained here is the second of three volumes.

• Language: English
• Publisher: Digireads.com Publishing
• Release date: Jan 1, 2015
• ISBN: 9781420950908

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THE LIVES OF THE ARTISTS (VOLUME II OF III)

BY GIORGIO VASARI

TRANSLATED BY MRS. JONATHAN FOSTER

Print ISBN 13: 978-1-4209-5089-2

Ebook ISBN 13: 978-1-4209-5090-8

This edition copyright © 2015

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CONTENTS

PIERO DELLA FRANCESCA, PAINTER OP BORGO SAN SEPOLCRO

FRA GIOVANNI DA FIESOLE, PAINTER OF THE ORDER OF PREACHING FRIARS

LEON BATTISTA ALBERTI, FLORENTINE ARCHITECT

FRA FILIPPO LIPPI, FLORENTINE PAINTER

ANDREA DAL CASTAGNO, OP THE MUGELLO, AND DOMENICO VENIZIANO, PAINTERS

GENTILE DA FABRIANO AND VITTORE PISA. NELLO, OF VERONA, PAINTERS

BENOZZO GOZZOLI, FLORENTINE PAINTER.

ANTONIO ROSSELLINO, FLORENTINE SCULPTOR, AND BERNARDO, HIS BROTHER, FLORENTINE SCULPTOR AND ARCHITECT.

DESIDERIO DA SETTIGNANO, SCULPTOR

MINO DA FIESOLE, SCULPTOR

JACOPO, GIOVANNI, AND GENTILE BELLINI, VENETIAN PAINTERS

DOMENICO GHIRLANDAJO, FLORENTINE PAINTER

ANTONIO AND PIERO POLLAIUOLO, FLORENTINE PAINTERS AND SCULPTORS

SANDRO BOTTICELLI, FLORENTINE PAINTER

BENEDETTO DA MAIANO, FLORENTINE SCULPTOR AND ARCHITECT

ANDREA DEL VERROCCHIO, FLORENTINE PAINTER, GOLDSMITH, AND SCULPTOR

THE MANTUAN PAINTER, ANDREA MANTEGNA

FILIPPO LIPPI, FLORENTINE PAINTER

BERNARDO PINTURICCHIO, PAINTER OF PERUGIA.

FRANCESCO FRANCIA, THE BOLOGNESE, GOLDSMITH AND PAINTER

PIETRO PERUGINO, PAINTER

VITTORE SCARPACCIA

LUCA SIGNORELLI, OF CORTONA, PAINTER

INTRODUCTION TO THE THIRD PART

LEONARDO DA VINCI, FLORENTINE PAINTER AND SCULPTOR

THE VENETIAN PAINTER, GIORGIONE, OF CASTELFRANCO

THE PAINTER, ANTONIO DA CORREGGIO

LIFE OF THE FLORENTINE PAINTER, PIERO DI COSIMO

THE ARCHITECT BRAMANTE, OF URBINO

THE FLORENTINE PAINTER, FRA BARTOLOMMEO DI SAN MARCO

THE FLORENTINE PAINTER, MARIOTTO ALBERTINELLI

THE FLORENTINE PAINTER, RAFFAELLINO DEL GARBO

THE FLORENTINE SCULPTOR, TORRIGIANO

THE FLORENTINE ARCHITECTS, GIULIANO AND ANTONIO DA SAN GALLO

PIERO DELLA FRANCESCA, PAINTER OP BORGO SAN SEPOLCRO{1}

[Born 1420; died 1492.]

Unhappy, of a truth, are those who, devoting themselves to laborious studies, in the hope of benefiting others and acquiring fame for themselves, are impeded by infirmities or prevented by death from carrying the works they have commenced to their ultimate perfection. For it sometimes happens, that leaving their labours when all but completed, or in a fair way for the attainment of perfection, the credit of all is usurped by the presumption of those who seek to conceal the skin of the ass beneath the glorious and honoured spoils of the lion. And although time, who is declared to be the father of truth, does sooner or later make the real state of things manifest, yet it is none the less true, that the labourer is, for a certain period, defrauded of the honour which should attach to the works he has performed. Such was the case with Piero della Francesca, of Borgo San Sepolcro, who, being considered an admirable master in the difficulties of drawing rectilinear bodies, as also well versed in arithmetic and geometry, was nevertheless prevented in his mature age, first by blindness, and finally by the close of his life, from bringing to light the various fruits of his meritorious labours, and the many books written by him, which are still preserved in Borgo, his native place.{2}

And the man who should have laboured with all his powers to secure the fame and increase the glory of Piero, from whom he had acquired all that he knew, Fra Luca del Borgo namely,—he, on the contrary, envious and malignant, did his utmost to annihilate the name of Piero, his instructor, and sought to arrogate to himself that honour which was due to his teacher alone, publishing, under his own name, all the laborious works of that good old man, who, in addition to the acquirements named above, was highly distinguished in painting also.{3} Piero was born in Borgo San Sepolcro,—now a city, which it was not at that time,—and was called Della Francesca, from the name of his mother; whom the death of her husband and his father had left a widow before he was born,{4} and because he had been brought up solely by herself, who furthermore assisted him in the attainment of that learning to which his good fortune had destined him. Piero gave considerable attention to mathematics in his early youth; and although he was induced to become a painter in his fifteenth year, he yet never deserted the study of that science; but, on the contrary, made extraordinary progress therein, as well as in painting. He was much employed by Guidobaldo Feltro the elder, Duke of Urbino,{5} for whom he executed many pictures. These works comprised numerous small figures, and were extremely beautiful, but have, for the most part, been much injured, or altogether destroyed in the many times that this Duchy has been disturbed by wars.{6} Some of the writings of Piero della Francesca, on geometry and the laws of perspective, are nevertheless still preserved there. In knowledge of these sciences Piero was certainly not inferior to the best-informed of his contemporaries; nay, was perhaps equal to any who have followed him down to the present time, as may be shown by the many fine drawings in perspective which fill his works. Among other instances of this kind is a vase, which is treated in such a manner that it can be seen before, behind, and at the sides, while the base and mouth are equally visible; without doubt a most astonishing thing. In this work the smallest minutiae are attended to with the utmost exactitude, and each turn of every circle is foreshortened with the greatest delicacy. Having by these things acquired considerable eminence in the court of Urbino, Piero desired to make himself known elsewhere; he therefore proceeded to Pesaro and Ancona,{7} whence, at the moment when he was most busily occupied, he was summoned by the Duke Borso, to Ferrara, where he painted many apartments of the palace. These chambers were afterwards destroyed by Duke Ercole the elder, who rebuilt the palace after the modern taste, one consequence of which was, that there now remains no work in that city from the hand of Piero, if we except a chapel in the church of Saint Agostino, which he painted in fresco, and even that has been grievously injured by the humidity of the place.{8}

From Ferrara Piero della Francesca was invited by pope Nicholas V. to Rome, where he painted two stories in the upper rooms of the palace, in company with Bramante of Milan.{9} But these works also were destroyed in like manner by pope Julius II., to the end that Raffaello da Urbino might paint the imprisonment of St. Peter, with the miracle of the corporale of Bolsena in its place. At the same time there were likewise destroyed certain pictures which had been painted by Bramantino, an excellent master of that time.{10}

But to return to Piero della Francesca: when he had completed his work in Rome he returned to Borgo, where his mother had died, and in the deanery there, he painted two saints in fresco, within the central door, which are considered extremely beautiful.{11} In a convent belonging to the monks of Sant' Agostino, this master painted the picture for the high altar, which was a much esteemed work.{12} He likewise painted a Virgin in fresco{13} for a society, or, as they call themselves, a brotherhood, of the Misericordia; and in the palace of the Conservators he executed a Resurrection, which is held to be the best of his works in that city; nay, of all that he ever performed.{14} At Santa Maria di Loretto, Piero commenced a work in company with Domenico of Venice: this was the decoration of the sacristy, but as he left it incomplete from fear of the plague, it was afterwards finished by Luca da Cortona,{15} a disciple of Piero della Francesca, as will be related in the proper place.

Departing from Loretto, and proceeding to Arezzo, Piero there painted the chapel of the Bacci family in the church of San Francesco,{16} the chapel is that near the high altar, and the work was executed for Luigi Bacci, a citizen of Arezzo. The ceiling of the chapel had already been commenced by Lorenzo di Bicci; the subject represented is the History of the Cross, from the moment when, at the burial of Adam by his sons, the seed of the tree from which the wood of the cross was afterwards taken, was placed beneath the tongue of the patriarch by their forethought, to the time when the exaltation of the cross itself was solemnized by the Emperor Heraclius, who, supporting it on his shoulders and walking barefoot, thus enters with it into Jerusalem. In this work are many admirable qualities, and various merits in the attitudes, all of which are worthy of consideration. Among other things, the vestments worn by the female attendants of the Queen of Sheba will be found to deserve praise; they are treated in a pleasing manner, which was then new. There are, besides, many portraits from life which exhibit great animation, with a range of Corinthian columns, the proportions of which are absolutely perfect; and a peasant, who, leaning with his hands on his spade, stands listening to the discourse made by St. Helena, while the three crosses are in process of being disinterred, with an attention which is expressed so perfectly that it would not be possible to improve it The dead body which is restored to life at the touch of the cross is also very well executed, and the joy felt by St. Helena is equally well expressed, as is the arrangement of the bystanders, who prostrate themselves in adoration. But, superior to all besides, whether for conception or execution, is the representation of Night, as given by this master: in this picture is an angel; the figure, admirably foreshortened, is descending with the head downwards, bearing the insignia of Victory to Constantine, who is sleeping in his pavilion, watched by a chamberlain, and guarded by armed men, whose forms are obscurely seen in the darkness. These figures, with the tent, and all within a certain distance, are illumined by the light which proceeds from the angel himself, and which is managed with the utmost care and judgment. In this work, Piero della Francesca has shown the importance of copying things as they really are, and of taking nature and reality for the models; this he has done excellently well, and has thereby given later artists the opportunity of profiting by his example, and in doing so to arrive at the high position which they have attained in our day. In the same work is a battle, in which fear, animosity, force, dexterity, and other passions and qualities exhibited by the combatants, are expressed with extraordinary truthfulness. The occurrences of the struggle are equally well represented, and fearful scenes of carnage; the wounded, the dying, and the dead, are depicted with great animation. Piero has likewise found means to imitate in this fresco, the glittering of the arms for which he well merits praise; and no less for a group of horses in the flight and submersion of Maxentius, these animals being foreshortened with such extraordinary skill, that when the time in which they were executed is considered, we may truly declare them to be excellent and beautiful beyond measure. A figure, partly nude, partly clothed in Saracenic vestments, and seated on a meagre horse, is also in this work, and displays the knowledge which Piero della Francesca possessed of anatomy, a science but imperfectly understood in his time. For all these things, the artist well deserved the large rewards bestowed on him by Luigi Bacci, whose portrait, with those of Carlo and others of his brothers, he has depicted in the figures present at the decapitation of a king, which makes part of the story. The portraits of other Aretine citizens, distinguished as men of letters, accompany those of Luigi and his brothers, by whom Piero was highly esteemed, as he was indeed by the whole city, which he had so richly adorned and ennobled by his works.

In the episcopal church of Arezzo, Piero della Francesca executed a Santa Maria Maddalena in fresco, beside the door of the sacristy; and for the brotherhood of the Nunzata,{17} he painted the banner which they carry in procession.{18} He likewise depicted San Donate in episcopal robes with figures of children, on a seat drawn in perspective at the head of the cloister belonging to Santa Maria delle Grazie, and at San Bernardo he executed a figure of San Vincenzio, in a high niche of the wall, for the monks of Monte Oliveto, which is much esteemed by artists. In a chapel at Sargiano, a residence of the Frati Zoccolanti{19} situated outside of Arezzo, Piero executed a figure of Christ praying by night in the garden, which is very beautiful.{20}

In Perugia, also, this master produced many works which are still to be seen in that city. Among others, a picture{21} in tempera, for the church of the nuns of Sant' Antonio of Padua, this represents the Virgin with the Child on her lap; she is accompanied by San Francesco, Sant' Elizabetta, San Giovanni Battista, and Sant' Antonio of Padua. Above these figures is a most beautiful Annunciation, with an angel which seems in truth to have descended from heaven; and, what is more, a range of columns diminishing in perspective, which is indeed beautiful. In the predella are representations in small figures, depicting St. Anthony restoring a boy to life; St. Elizabeth saving a child who has fallen into a well, and St. Francis receiving the stigmata.{22} At Ancona, likewise, on the altar of St. Joseph, in the church of San Ciriaco, Piero della Francesca depicted the espousals of our Lady in a story of extraordinary beauty.{23}

This master was exceedingly zealous in the study of arts. As I have said, he devoted much attention to perspective, and possessed considerable knowledge of Euclid, inasmuch that he understood all the most important properties of rectilinear bodies better than any other geometrician; and the most useful elucidations of these matters which we possess, are from his hand: for the monk of St. Francis, Maestro Luca del Borgo, whose works treat of regular geometrical bodies, was his disciple, and when Piero became old, and finally died, after having written many books, the above named Maestro Luca, attributing them to himself, caused the works of his master to be printed as his own, they having fallen into his hands on the death of Piero.{24}

It was the custom of Piero della Francesca to form figures in clay whereon he afterwards arranged draperies of soft textures richly folded, from which he then drew, using them as his models.

The works of Piero Borghese were executed about the year 1458. At the age of sixty he was attacked by a catarrh, in consequence of which he became blind, and thus lived till he had attained his eighty-sixth year.{25} He left considerable property among which were certain houses in Borgo, which he had himself built, but which were burnt and destroyed in the strife of factions during the year 1536.{26} He was honourably interred by his fellow citizens in the principal church, which originally belonged to the monks of Camaldoli, but is now the episcopate.{27} His books, which are for the most part in the library of Frederick II., duke of Urbino, are of so much value, that they have deservedly obtained for him the name of the first geometrician of his time.

FRA GIOVANNI DA FIESOLE, PAINTER OF THE ORDER OF PREACHING FRIARS{28}

[Born 1387; died 1455.]

Fra Giovanni Angelico Da Fiesole, who, while in the world, was called Guido,{29} having been no less eminent as a painter and miniaturist than excellent as a churchman, deserves to be held in honourable remembrance for both these causes. This master might have lived in the world with the utmost ease and comfort, since, in addition to what he originally possessed, he might have gained whatever he desired by the exercise of the arts with which, while still very young, he was perfectly well acquainted. But he chose nevertheless, in the hope of ensuring the peace and quiet of his life, and of promoting the salvation of his soul, to enter the order of the preaching friars;{30} for although it is certain, that we may serve God in all conditions, yet to some it appears, that they can more effectually secure their salvation in the cloister than in the world; and this purpose is doubtless successful, as regards the man of good and upright purpose, but the contrary as certainly happens to him who becomes a monk from less worthy motives, and who is sure to render himself truly miserable.

There are certain choral books from the hand of Fra Giovanni in his convent of San Marco at Florence, of which the miniatures are such that no words could do justice to their beauty. Similar to these are others, which he left in San Domenico, at Fiesole, and which are executed with inexpressible care and patience: it is true that he was assisted in these works by an elder brother, who was also a miniaturist, and tolerably well versed in painting.{31}

One of the first paintings executed by this good father{32} was a picture on panel for the Carthusian monastery in Florence, where it was placed in the principal chapel, which belonged to the cardinal Acciaiuoli: the subject is a Virgin with the Child in her arms, and with angels at her feet; the latter are sounding musical instruments and singing, and are exceedingly beautiful: on one side of the Virgin are San Lorenzo, with Santa Maria Maddalena; on the other are San Zanobi, with San Benedetto; and on the predella are stories from the lives of those saints, the figures of which are very small, and are executed with infinite care. In the same chapel are two other pictures by the same master, one representing the Coronation of the Virgin; and in the other are the Madonna, with two saints in ultra-marine blue, of great beauty.{33} In the nave of Santa Maria Novella, and beside the door, which is opposite to the choir, Fra Giovanni afterwards painted a fresco, wherein he represented San Domenico, Santa Caterina da Siena, and St. Peter the martyr. In the chapel of the Coronation of our Lady, which is in the same part of the church, he likewise painted certain small historical pictures; and on the doors which close the old organ he painted an Annunciation on cloth, which is now in the convent, opposite to the door of the lower dormitory, and between the two cloisters.{34}

Fra Giovanni was so greatly beloved for his admirable qualities by Cosimo de' Medici, that the latter had no sooner completed the church and convent of San Marco,{35} than he caused the good father to paint the whole story of the Crucifixion of Jesus Christ on one of the walls of the chapter-house. In this work are figures of all those saints who have been heads and founders of religious bodies, mourning and bewailing at the foot of the cross on one side, and on the other, St. Mark the Evangelist beside the mother of the Son of God, who has fainted at sight of the crucified Saviour. Around the Virgin are the Maries, who are sorrowing with and supporting her; they are accompanied by the saints, Cosimo and Damiano. It is said that in the figure of San Cosimo, Fra Giovanni depicted his friend Nanni d'Antonio di Banco, the sculptor, from the life. Beneath this work, in a frieze over the back of the seats, the master executed a figure of San Domenico standing at the foot of a tree, on the branches of which are medallions, wherein are all the popes, cardinals, bishops, saints, and masters in theology who had belonged to Fra Giovanni's order of the Preaching Friars, down to his own day. In this work the brethren of his order assisted him by procuring portraits of these various personages from different places, by which means he was enabled to execute many likenesses from nature. These are, San Domenico in the centre, who is grasping the branches of the tree; Pope Innocent V.; a Frenchman; {36} the Beato Ugone, first cardinal of that order; the Beato Paolo the patriarch, a Florentine; Sant' Antonino, a Florentine; Bishop Giordano, a German, and the second general of the order; the Beato Niccolo; the Beato Remigio, a Florentine; and the martyr Boninsegno, a Florentine; all these are on the right hand. On the left are Benedict XI.,{37} of Treviso; Giandominico, a Florentine cardinal; Pietro da Palude, patriarch of Jerusalem; the German Alberto Magno; the Beato Raimondo, of Catalonia, third general of the order; the Beato Chiaro, a Florentine, and Provincial of Rome; San Vincenzio di Valenza; and the Beato Bernardo, a Florentine; all these heads are truly graceful and very beautiful.{38} In the first cloister, Fra Giovanni then painted many admirable figures in fresco over certain lunettes, with a crucifix, at the foot of which stands San Domenico, which is greatly esteemed; and in the dormitory, beside many other things in the cells and on the walls, he executed a story from the New Testament which is beautiful beyond the power of words to describe.{39}

But exquisite and admirable above all is the picture of the High Altar in that church; for besides that the Madonna in this painting awakens devotional feeling in all who regard her, by the pure simplicity of her expression; and that the saints surrounding her have a similar character;{40} the predella, in which are stories of the martyrdom of San Cosimo, San Damiano, and others, is so perfectly finished, that one cannot imagine it possible for any thing to be executed with greater care, nor can figures more delicate, or more judiciously arranged, be conceived.{41}

At San Domenico di Fiesole Fra Giovanni likewise painted the picture of the High Altar; but this—perhaps because it appeared to have received injury—has been retouched by other masters, and much deteriorated. The Predella and the Ciborium are, fortunately, much better preserved; and the many small figures which are seen there, surrounded by a celestial glory, are so beautiful, that they do truly seem to belong to paradise; nor can he who approaches them be ever weary of regarding their beauty.{42} In a chapel of the same church is a picture from the same hand, representing our Lady receiving the annunciation from the angel Gabriel, with a countenance, which is seen in profile, so devout, so delicate, and so perfectly executed, that the beholder can scarcely believe it to be by the hand of man, but would rather suppose it to have been delineated in Paradise. In the landscape forming the background are seen Adam and Eve, by whom it was made needful that the Virgin should give birth to the Redeemer.{43} In the predella are likewise certain stories, the small figures of which are extremely beautiful.

But superior to all the other works of Fra Giovanni, and one in which lie surpassed himself, is a picture in the same church, near the door on the left hand of the entrance: in this work he proves the high quality of his powers as well as the profound intelligence he possessed of the art which he practised. The subject is the Coronation of the Virgin by Jesus Christ: the principal figures are surrounded by a choir of angels, among whom are vast numbers of saints and holy personages, male and female. These figures are so numerous, so well executed, in attitudes so varied, and with expressions of the head so richly diversified, that one feels infinite pleasure and delight in regarding them. Nay, one is convinced that those blessed spirits can look no otherwise in heaven itself, or, to speak under correction, could not, if they had forms, appear otherwise; for all the saints, male and female, assembled here, have not only life and expression, most delicately and truly rendered, but the colouring also of the whole work would seem to have been given by the hand of a saint, or of an angel like themselves. It is not without most sufficient reason therefore, that this excellent ecclesiastic is always called Frate Giovanni Angelico. The stories from the life of our Lady and of San Domenico which adorn the predella, moreover, are in the same divine manner, and I, for myself, can affirm with truth, that I never see this work but it appears something anew, nor can I ever satisfy myself with the sight of it, or have enough of beholding it.{44}

In the chapel of the Nunziata at Florence, which Piero di Cosimo de' Medici caused to be constructed, Fra Giovanni painted the doors of the armory or press,{45} wherein the silver utensils for the service of the altar are deposited, the figures are made and executed with much care. He painted besides so many pictures which are now in the dwellings of different Florentine citizens, that I remain sometimes in astonishment, and am at a loss to comprehend how one man could so perfectly execute all that he has performed, even though he did labour many years.{46} The very reverend Don Vincenzio Borghini, superintendent of the Innocenti, is in possession of a small picture of the Virgin by the hand of this father, which is beautiful;{47} and Bartolommeo Gondi, as zealous an amateur of these arts as any gentleman that I know, has a large picture, a small one, and a crucifix, all by the same hand.{48} The paintings in the arch over the door of San Domenico{49} are likewise by Fra Giovanni, and in Santa Trinita there is a picture in the sacristy, representing a deposition from the cross, to which he devoted so much care that it may be numbered among the best of his works.{50}

In San Francesco, without the gate of San Miniato, Fra Giovanni painted an Annunciation,{51} and in Santa Maria Novella, in addition to the works from his hand already enumerated, are certain stories, decorating various reliquaries{52} which it is the custom to place on the altar in high solemnities,{53} with others which are used in the Easter ceremonies.{54}

In the abbey of the same city (Florence), this master painted the figure of San Benedetto, in the act of commanding silence.{55} For the Guild of Joiners,{56} he executed a picture {57}{58} which is preserved in the house of their Guild,{59} and in Cortona he painted a small arch over the door of the church which belongs to his order, as also the picture of the high altar.{60}

In Orvieto,{61} Fra Giovanni began to paint certain prophets in the Cathedral; on the ceiling of the chapel of our Lady, these were afterwards finished by Luca da Cortona. For the Brotherhood of the Temple in Florence, he painted a picture representing the Dead Christ,{62} and in the church of the Monks of the Angeli,{63} he executed a Paradiso and Inferno, the figures of both which are small. Fra Giovanni proved the rectitude of his judgment in this work, having made the countenances of the blessed beautiful and full of a celestial gladness; but the condemned, those destined to the pains of hell, he has depicted in various attitudes of sorrow, and bearing the impress and consciousness of their misdeeds and wretchedness on their faces: the blessed are seen to enter the gate of Paradise in triumphal dance, the condemned are dragged away to eternal punishment in hell, by the hands of demons. This work is in the church above-mentioned, on the right hand, as you approach the high altar, near where the priest is wont to sit while the Mass is sung. For the Nuns of St. Peter the Martyr, who now occupy the monastery of San Felice in Piazza, which formerly belonged to the Order of Camaldoli, Fra Giovanni painted a picture wherein are represented the Virgin, St. John the Baptist, St. Dominick, St. Thomas, and St. Peter the Martyr, with many small figures.{64} In the centre aisle of Santa Maria Nuova,{65} is also to be seen a picture by the hand of this master.

These many and various labours having rendered the name of Fra Giovanni illustrious throughout all Italy, he was invited to Rome by Pope Nicholas V.,{66} who caused him to adorn the chapel of the palace, where the pontiff is accustomed to hear mass, with a Deposition from the Cross, and with certain events from the life of San Lorenzo, which are admirable.{67} The Pope further appointed him to execute the miniatures of several books, which are also extremely beautiful.{68} In the church of the Minerva Fra Giovanni executed the picture of the High Altar{69} and an Annunciation, which is now placed against the wall beside the principal chapel. For the same pontiff, Fra Giovanni decorated the chapel of the sacrament in the palace, which chapel was afterwards destroyed by Pope Paul III., who conducted the staircase through it.{70} In this work, which was an excellent one, Fra Giovanni had painted stories in fresco from the life of Christ, in his own admirable manner, and had introduced many portraits of eminent persons then living. These portraits would most probably have been lost to us, had not Paul Jovius caused the following among them to be reserved for his museum: Pope Nicholas V., the Emperor Frederick, who had at that time arrived in Italy; Frate Antonino, who afterwards became archbishop of Florence, Biondo da Forli, and Ferdinand of Arragon.

And now, Fra Giovanni, appearing to the Pope to be, as he really was, a person of most holy life, gentle and modest, the Pontiff, on the archbishopric becoming vacant, judged Fra Giovanni to be worthy of that preferment; but the Frate, hearing this, entreated his Holiness to provide himself with some other person, since he did not feel capable of ruling men.{71} He added, that among the brethren of his order, was a man well skilled in the art of governing others, a friend of the poor, and one who feared God: on this man he considered that the proposed dignity would be much more appropriately conferred than on himself. The Pope hearing this, and remembering that what he said of this brother of his order was true, freely granted him the favour he desired, and thus was the Frate Antonino of the order of Friars-Preachers made archbishop of Florence. And the new prelate was in truth most illustrious, whether for learning or sanctity; he was of such a character, in fine, that he fully merited the honour of canonization bestowed on him in our own days by Pope Adrian VI.

A great proof of excellence was this act of Fra Giovanni's, and, without doubt, a very rare thing. The resignation of a dignity so eminent, of an honour and office so important, offered to himself by the supreme pontiff, but yielded by him to the man whom he, with unbiassed judgment and in the sincerity of his heart, considered much more worthy of it than himself. The churchmen of our times might learn from this holy man to refrain from taking upon them those offices, the duties of which they cannot duly fulfil, and to resign them to those who are more worthy of them. And would to God, that all ecclesiastics (be it said without offence to the good among them) would employ their time, as did this excellent father, to return to Fra Giovanni, so truly named Angelico, seeing that he continued the whole course of his life in the service of God, or in labouring for the benefit of the world and of his neighbour. And what more can or ought to be desired, than by thus living righteously, to secure the kingdom of heaven, and by labouring virtuously, to obtain everlasting fame in this world? And, of a truth, so extraordinary and sublime a gift as that possessed by Fra Giovanni, should scarcely be conferred on any but a man of most holy life, since it is certain that all who take upon them to meddle with sacred and ecclesiastical subjects, should be men of holy and spiritual minds; for we cannot but have seen that when such works are attempted by persons of little faith, and who do but lightly esteem religion, they frequently cause light thoughts and unworthy inclinations to awaken in the beholder; whence it follows that these works are censured for their offences in this kind, even while praised for the ability displayed in them as works of art. Yet I would not here give occasion to the mistake that things rude and inept shall therefore be holy, and that the beautiful and attractive are licentious: this is the false interpretation of many who, when they see feminine or youthful figures adorned with more than common beauty, instantly consider them licentious, and therefore censure them; not perceiving how wrongfully they are condemning the sound judgment of the painter; for the latter believes the saints, male and female, who are celestial, to be as much superior to mere mortals in beauty, as heaven is superior to things earthly and the work of human hands; and, what is worse, they at the same time betray the unsoundness and impurity of their own hearts, by thus deducing evil consequences from, and finding causes of offence, in things which, if they were truly admirers of good, as by their stupid zeal they desire to make themselves appear, would rather awaken in them aspirations towards heaven, and to wish to make themselves acceptable to the Creator of all things, from whom, as Himself, the highest and most perfect; beauty and perfection have proceeded. But what are we to suppose that such people would do if they were placed, or rather what do they when they are placed, where they find living beauty, accompanied by light manners, by seductive words, by movements full of grace, and eyes that cannot but ravish the heart not amply guarded? What are we to believe they then do, since the mere image, the very shadow, can move them so powerfully? Not that I would have any suppose me to approve the placing in churches of such figures as are depicted in all but perfect nudity; by no means: for in such cases the painter has not taken into consideration the reserve that was due to the place. He may have just cause for desiring to make manifest the extent of his power; but this should be done with due regard to circumstances, and not without befitting respect to persons, times, and places.

Fra Giovanni was a man of the utmost simplicity of intention, and was most holy in every act of his life. It is related of him, and it is a good evidence of his simple earnestness of purpose, that being one morning invited to breakfast by Pope Nicholas V., he had scruples of conscience as to eating meat without the permission of his prior, not considering that the authority of the pontiff was superseding that of the prior. He disregarded all earthly advantages; and, living in pure holiness, was as much the friend of the poor in life as I believe his soul now is in heaven. He laboured continually at his paintings, but would do nothing that was not connected with things holy. He might have been rich, but for riches he took no care; on the contrary, he was accustomed to say, that the only true riches was contentment with little. He might have commanded many, but would not do so, declaring that there was less fatigue and less danger of error in obeying others, than in commanding others. It was at his option to hold places of dignity in the brotherhood of his order, and also in the world; but he regarded them not, affirming that he sought no dignity and took no care but that of escaping hell and drawing near to Paradise. And of a truth what dignity can be compared to that which should be most coveted by all churchmen, nay, by every man living, that, namely, which is found in God alone, and in a life of virtuous labour?

Fra Giovanni was kindly to all, and moderate in all his habits, living temperately, and holding himself entirely apart from the snares of the world. He used frequently to say, that he who practised the art of painting had need of quiet, and should live without cares or anxious thoughts; adding, that he who would do the work of Christ should perpetually remain with Christ. He was never seen to display anger among the brethren of his order; a thing which appears to me most extraordinary, nay, almost incredible; if he admonished his friends, it was with gentleness and a quiet smile; and to those who sought his works, he would reply with the utmost cordiality, that they had but to obtain the assent of the prior, when he would assuredly not fail to do what they desired. In fine, this never sufficiently to be lauded father was most humble, modest, and excellent in all his words and works; in his painting he gave evidence of piety and devotion, as well as of ability, and the saints that he painted have more of the air and expression of sanctity than have those of any other master.

It was the custom of Fra Giovanni to abstain from retouching or improving any painting once finished. He altered nothing, but left all as it was done the first time, believing, as he said, that such was the will of God. It is also affirmed that he would never take the pencil in hand until he had first offered a prayer. He is said never to have painted a Crucifix without tears streaming from his eyes, and in the countenances and attitudes of his figures it is easy to perceive proof of his sincerity, his goodness, and the depth of his devotion to the religion of Christ.

Fra Giovanni died in 1455, at the age of sixty-eight. He left disciples, among whom was Benozzo, a Florentine, by whom his manner was always imitated, with Zanobi Strozzi, who executed paintings for all Florence, which were dispersed among the houses of the citizens.

Gentile da Fabriano was likewise among the disciples of Fra Giovanni, as was Domenico di Michelino, who executed the altar-piece of San Zanobi, in the church of Sant' Apollinare, of Florence, with many other pictures. Fra Giovanni Angelico was interred by the brethren of his order in the church of the Minerva at Rome, beside the lateral door which opens on the sacristy. On his tomb, which is of marble and of a round{72} form, is the portrait of the master taken from nature;{73} and on the marble is engraved the epitaph, which may be read below:

Non mihi sit laudi, quod eram velut alter Apelles,

Sed quod lucra tuis omnia, Christe, dabam:

Altera nam terris opera extant, altera cœlo

Urbs me Joannem flos tulit Etruriœ.

In Santa Maria del Fiore are two very large books richly decorated with miniatures most admirably executed by the hand of Fra Giovanni Angelico;{74}{75} they are held in the utmost veneration, are most sumptuously adorned, and are only suffered to be seen on occasions of high solemnity.

LEON BATTISTA ALBERTI, FLORENTINE ARCHITECT{76}

[Born 1404; died 1472.]

The knowledge of letters and the study of the sciences are, without doubt, of the utmost value to all, and offer the most important advantages to every artist who takes pleasure therein; but most of all are they serviceable to sculptors, painters, and architects, for whom they prepare the path to various inventions in all the works executed by them; and be the natural qualities of a man what they may, his judgment can never be brought to perfection if he be deprived of the advantages resulting from the accompaniment of learning. For who does not admit, that in selecting the site of buildings it is necessary to proceed with enlightened consideration, in order to their being sheltered from dangerous winds, and so placed as to avoid insalubrious air, injurious vapours, and the effects of impure and unhealthy waters? who does not allow, that for whatever work is to be executed, the artist must know for himself, both how to avoid impediments and how to secure all needful results, that he may not be reduced to depend on others for the theory on which his labours must be founded, to ensure success? Since theory, when separated from practice, is, for the most part, found to avail very little; but when theory and practice chance to be happily united in the same person, nothing can be more suitable to the life and vocation of artists, as well because art is rendered much richer and more perfect by the aid of science, as because the councils and writings of learned artists have, in themselves, a greater efficacy, and obtain a higher degree of credit, than can be accorded to the words or works of those who know nothing beyond the simple process they use, and which they put in practice, well or ill, as it may chance. Now that all this is true is seen clearly in the instance of Leon Batista Alberti who, having given his attention to the study of Latin as well as to that of architecture, perspective, and painting, has left behind him books, written in such a manner, that no artist of later times has been able to surpass him in his style and other qualities as an author, while there have been numbers, much more distinguished than himself in the practice of art,{77} although it is very generally supposed (such is the force of his writings, and so extensive has been their influence on the pens and words of the learned, his contemporaries and others), that he was, in fact, superior to all those who have, on the contrary, greatly surpassed him in their works. We are thus taught by experience, that, in so far as regards name and fame, the written word is that which, of all things, has the most effectual force, the most vivid life, and the longest duration; for books make their way to all places, and everywhere they obtain the credence of men, provided they be truthful and written in the spirit of candour. We are therefore not to be surprised if we find the renowned Leon Batista to be better known by his writings than by the works of his hand.

This master was born in Florence,{78} of the most noble family of the Alberti, concerning which we have already spoken in another place. He gave his attention, not only to the acquirement of knowledge in the world of art generally, and to the examination of works of antiquity in their proportions, &c., but also, and much more fully, to writing on these subjects, to which he was by nature more inclined than to the practice of art.{79} Leon Batista was well versed in arithmetic, and a very good geometrician; he wrote ten books respecting architecture in the Latin tongue, which were published in 1481;{80} they may now be read in the Florentine language, having been translated by the Rev. Messer Cosimo Bartoli, provost of San Giovanni, in Florence. He likewise wrote three books on painting, now translated into the Tuscan by Messer Ludovico Domenichi, and composed a dissertation on tractile forces, containing rules for measuring heights. Leon Batista was moreover the author of the Libri della vita civile,{81} with some other works of an amatory character, in prose and verse: he was the first who attempted to apply Latin measures to Italian verse, as may be seen in his epistle.

Questa per estrema miserabile pistola mando,

A te che spregi miseramente noi.

At the time when Nicholas V. had thrown the city of Rome into utter confusion with his peculiar manner of building, Leon Batista Alberti arrived in that city, where, by means of his intimate friend Biondo da Forli,{82} he became known to the pontiff. The latter had previously availed himself of the counsel of Bernardo Rossellino, a Florentine sculptor and architect, as will be related in the life of Antonio his brother; and Bernardo, having commenced the restoration of the papal palace, with other works in Santa Maria Maggiore, thenceforward proceeded by the advice of Leon Batista, such being the will of the Pope. Thus the pontiff with the counsel of one of these two, and the execution of the other, brought many useful and praiseworthy labours to conclusion: among these was the Fountain of the Acqua Vergine, which had been ruined, and was restored by him. He likewise caused the fountain of the Piazza de' Trevi to be decorated with the marble ornaments which we now see there,{83} among which are the arms of Pope Nicholas himself, and those of the Roman people.{84}

Leon Batista thence proceeded to Sigismondo Malatesta of Rimini, for whom he made the model of the church of San Francesco,{85} that of the Facade more particularly, which was constructed in marble, and of the southern side, where there are very large arches with burial places for the illustrious men of that city. In fine, he completed the whole fabric in such a manner that it is beyond dispute one of the most renowned temples of Italy. Within this church are six very beautiful chapels,{86} one of which, dedicated to San Geronimo, is most sumptuously adorned; various relics brought from Jerusalem being preserved in it. This chapel likewise contains the sepulchre of the above-named Sigismondo, with that of his wife,{87} very richly constructed of fine marbles, in the year 1450. One one of these tombs is the portrait of Malatesta, that of Leon Batista himself being also to be seen in another part of the work.

In the year 1457, when the very useful method of printing books was invented by Giovanni Gutenberg,{88} a German, Leon Batista discovered something similar; the method of representing landscapes, and diminishing figures by means of an instrument, namely, by which small things could in like manner be presented in a larger form, and so enlarged at pleasure: all very extraordinary things, useful to art, and certainly very fine.

It happened about this time, that Giovanni di Paolo Rucellai resolved to adorn the principal Facade of Santa Maria Novella, entirely with marble, at his own cost; whereupon he consulted with Leon Batista, who was his intimate friend, and having received from him not advice only, but a design for the work also, he determined that it should by all means be put into execution, that so he might leave a memorial of himself.{89} Rucellai, therefore, caused the work to be at once commenced, and in the year 1477, it was finished, to the great satisfaction of all the city; the whole work being much admired, but more particularly the door, for which it is obvious that Leon Batista took more than common pains. This architect also gave the design for a palace,{90} which Cosimo Rucellai caused to be built in the street called La Vigne, with that for the Loggia which stands opposite to it.{91} In constructing the latter, Alberti, having made the arches above the columns very narrow, because he wished to continue them, and not make one arch only, found he had a certain space left on each side, and was consequently compelled to add ressaults to the inner angles. When he afterwards proceeded to turn the arches of the internal vaulting, he perceived that he could not give it the form of the half-circle, the effect of which would be stunted and clumsy; he therefore determined to turn small arches over the angles from one ressault to the other, showing that there was wanting in him that soundness of judgment in design, which, as is clearly evident, can only be the result of practice added to knowledge; each must be aided by the other, for the judgment can never become perfect unless the knowledge acquired be carried into operation, and the guidance of experience be attained by means of practice.

It is said that the same architect produced the design for the palace and gardens,{92} erected by the Rucellai family in the Via della Scala, an edifice constructed with much judgment, and which is therefore exceedingly commodious. Besides many other convenient arrangements, there are two galleries or loggie, one towards the south, the other to the west, both very beautiful, and raised upon the columns without arches; which method is the true and proper one, according to the ancients, because the architraves, which are placed immediately upon the capitals of the columns, stand level, while a rectangular body, such as is the arch turned into a vault in the upper part, cannot stand on a round column, without having the angles out of square or awry; this considered, the best mode of construction requires that the architraves should be placed upon the columns, or that, when it is resolved to construct arches, the master should employ pillars instead of columns.

For the same family of Rucellai, and in a similar manner, Leon Batista erected a chapel in the church of San Brancazio,{93} which rests on large architraves, supported on the side where the wall of the church opens into the chapel by two columns and two pilasters. This is a very difficult mode of proceeding, but gives great security, and is accordingly among the best works produced by this architect. In the centre of this chapel is an oblong tomb in marble of an oval form, and similar, according to an inscription engraved on the tomb itself, to the sepulchre of Christ at Jerusalem.

About the same time, Ludovico Gonzaga, Marquis of Mantua, having determined to construct the apsis, or tribune, and the principal chapel in the Nunziata, the church of the Servites in Florence, after the design and model of Leon Batista, caused a small square chapel, very old, and painted in the ancient manner, which was at the upper end of that church, to be demolished, and in its place made the tribune above-mentioned.{94} It has the fanciful and difficult form of a circular temple surrounded by nine chapels, all surmounted by a round arch, and each having the shape of a niche. But as the arches of these chapels are supported by the pilasters in front of them, it follows that the outlines of the stone arch tend constantly backwards towards the wall behind them, while the latter, following the form of the tribune itself, turns in the opposite direction: hence it results, that when the arches of the chapels are regarded from the side, they appear to fall backwards, which gives the whole an unhappy effect, although the proportions are correct: but the mode of treatment is an exceedingly difficult one, and it certainly would have been much better if Leon Batista had avoided the disorders of this method altogether: it is true that the plan is by no means easy of accomplishment, but there is a want of grace both in the whole and in the details, insomuch that it could not possibly have a good effect. And that this is true in respect of the larger parts may be shown by the great arch which forms the entrance to the tribune; for this, which is very beautiful on the outer side, appears on the inner, where it must of necessity turn with the turn of the chapel, which is round, to be falling backwards, and is extremely ungraceful. Leon Batista would, perhaps, not have fallen into this error, if to the knowledge he possessed, and to his theories, he had added the practice and experience acquired by actual working; another would have taken pains to avoid this difficulty, and sought rather to secure grace and beauty to his edifice. The whole work is nevertheless very fanciful and beautiful in itself, as well as difficult: nor can we deny that Leon Batista displayed great courage in venturing at that time to construct the tribune as he did. The architect was then invited to Mantua by the above-named Marchese Ludovico, where he made the model of the church of Sant' Andrea,{95} for that noble, with some few other works, and on the road leading from Mantua to Padua, there are certain churches which were erected after the manner of this architect. The Florentine Salvestro Fancelli,{96} a tolerably good architect and sculptor, was the person who carried Leon Batista's designs for the city of Florence into execution, according to the desire of that master, and this he did with extraordinary judgment and diligence. The works designed by Alberti for Mantua were executed by a certain Luca, also a Florentine, who, continuing ever after to dwell in that city, there died, leaving the name, as we are told by Filarete, to the family of the Luchi, which is still settled there. And the good fortune of Leon Batista was not small in thus having friends, who, comprehending his desires, were both able and willing to serve him, for as architects cannot always be at the work, it is of the utmost advantage to them to have a faithful and friendly assistant, and if no other ever knew this, I know it well, and that by long experience.

In painting, Leon Batista did not perform any great work, or execute pictures of much beauty; those remaining to us from his hand, and they are but very few, do not display a high degree of perfection, seeing that he was more earnestly devoted to study than to design. Yet he knew perfectly well how to give expression to his thoughts with the pencil, as may be seen in certain drawings by his hand in our book. In these are depicted the bridge of St. Angelo, with the sort of roof or covering in the manner of a Loggia, constructed over U after his design, as a shelter from the sun in summer, and from the rain and wind in winter. This work he executed for Pope Nicholas V.,{97} who had intended to construct many similar ones for various parts of Rome, but death interposed to prevent him. In a small chapel to the Virgin, at the approach to the bridge of the Carraia, in Florence, is a work by Leon Batista, an altar-table, namely, with three small historical pictures, and certain accessories in perspective, which were much more effectually described by him with the pen than depicted with the pencil. There is besides, a portrait of Alberti in the house of the Palla Rucellai family in Florence, drawn by himself with the aid of a mirror;{98} and a picture in chiaro-scuro, the figures of which are large. He likewise executed a perspective view of Venice and St. Mark's, but the figures seen in this work, which is one of the best paintings performed by Leon Batista, were executed by other masters.

Leon Batista Alberti was a man of refined habits and praiseworthy life,{99} a friend of distinguished men, liberal and courteous to all. He lived honourably and like a gentleman, as he was, all the course of his life, and finally, having attained to a tolerably mature age, he departed {100} content and tranquil to a better life, leaving behind him a most honourable name.{101}

FRA FILIPPO LIPPI, FLORENTINE PAINTER{102}

[Born circa 1406; died 1489.]

The Carmelite monk, Fra Filippo di Tommaso Lippi, was born at Florence in a bye street called Ardiglione, under the Canto alia Cuculia, and behind the convent of the Carmelites. By the death of his father{103} he was left a friendless orphan at the age of two years, his mother having also died shortly after his birth. The child was for some time under the care of a certain Mona Lapaccia, his aunt, the sister of his father, who brought him up with very great difficulty till he had attained his eighth year, when, being no longer able to support the burden of his maintenance, she placed him in the above-named convent of the Carmelites.{104} Here, in proportion as he showed himself dexterous and ingenious in all works performed by hand, did he manifest the utmost dulness and incapacity in letters, to which he would never apply himself, nor would he take any pleasure in learning of any kind. The boy continued to be called by his worldly name of Filippo, and being placed with others, who like himself were in the house of the novices, under the care of the master, to the end that the latter might see what could be done with him; in place of studying, he never did anything but daub his own books, and those of the other boys with caricatures, whereupon the prior determined to give him all means and every opportunity for learning to draw. The chapel of the Carmine had then been newly painted by Masaccio, and this being exceedingly beautiful, pleased Fra Filippo greatly, wherefore he frequented it daily for his recreation, and, continually practising there, in company with many other youths, who were constantly drawing in that place, he surpassed all the others by very much in dexterity and knowledge; insomuch that he was considered certain to accomplish some marvellous thing in the course of time. For not only in his youth, but when almost in his childhood, he performed so many praiseworthy labours, that it was truly wonderful. While still very young he painted a picture in terra verde,{105} in the cloister, near Masaccio's painting of the Consecration; the subject of which was a Pope confirming the Rule of the Carmelites, with others in fresco on several of the walls in different parts of the church: among these was a figure of St. John the Baptist, with stories from the life of that saint. Proceeding thus, and improving from day to day, he had so closely followed the manner of Masaccio, and his works displayed so much similarity to those of the latter, that many affirmed the spirit of Masaccio to have entered the body of Fra Filippo.{106} On one of the pillars of the church, near the organ, he depicted the figure of San Marziale, a work by which he acquired great fame, seeing that it was judged to bear a comparison with those executed by Masaccio. Whereupon, hearing himself so highly commended by all, he formed his resolution at the age of seventeen, and boldly threw off the clerical habit.{107}

Some time after this event, and being in the march of Ancona, Filippo was one day amusing himself with certain of his friends in a boat on the sea, when they were all taken by a Moorish galley which was cruising in that neighbourhood, and led captives into Barbary, where he remained, suffering many tribulations, for eighteen months. But, having frequent opportunities of seeing his master, it came into his head one day to draw his portrait; and finding an opportunity, he took a piece of charcoal from the fire, and with that delineated his figure at full length on a white wall, robed in his Moorish vestments. This being related to the master by the other slaves, to all of whom it appeared a miracle, the arts of drawing and painting not being practised in that country, the circumstance caused his liberation from the chains in which he had so long been held. And truly that was greatly to the glory of that noble art; for here was a man to whom belonged the right of condemning and punishing, but who, in place of inflicting pains and death, does the direct contrary, and is even led to show friendship, and restore the captive to liberty. Having afterwards executed certain works in painting for his master, he was then conducted safely to Naples,{108} where he painted a picture on panel for king Alfonso, then Duke of Calabria, which was placed in the chapel of the castle, where the guard-room now is. But after no long