Bookend Revolutions in Islamic History

By Bashir Ahmed Datoo Ph.D

This study begins with the foundational revolution that occurred at the beginning of the Islamic history and ends with the renewed revolution that is yet to occur at the end of time. These two revolutions, as it were, form the “bookends” of the Islamic history. In-between the two revolutions, the study examines all related events that happened or are yet to happen as well as describes the role of key players who shaped or influenced those events.
This is, therefore, a study of history but it is history with a huge difference. It is not a standard historical treatment whereby all important events are described in a chronological sequence within the timeframe selected for the study. Rather, it adopts a conceptual framework consisting of a network of linked concepts that provides a context for the interpretation of historical events.
The particular framework developed for the study still allows, for the most part, for the chronology of events to be maintained. However, the framework determines the specific events that are described, events that are directly linked to the framework. Thus, a few of the themes that may appear in a chronological treatment are excluded, while a number of other themes that are not covered in that approach are incorporated. The end-product is a study that emphasizes relationships among the themes and so ensures that it holds together as a cohesive narrative.
The conceptual framework for the study is shown in a schematic diagram on the cover of the book and in the introductory chapter where it is fully described. The concepts that underpin the framework are elaborated upon further at the beginning of each chapter of the book.
An additional distinctive feature of the study is that an attempt is made to highlight the major achievements of the most important personalities who influenced parts of that history. These assessments serve to round up the chapters in which a particular personality looms large.

• Language: English
• Publisher: The World Federation of KSIMC
• Release date: Apr 5, 2015
• ISBN: 9781909285514

Book preview

Preface

This study begins with the foundational revolution that occurred at the beginning of the Islamic history and ends with the renewed revolution that is yet to occur at the end of time. These two revolutions, as it were, form the bookends of the Islamic history. In-between the two revolutions, the study examines all related events that happened or are yet to happen as well as describes the role of key players who shaped or influenced those events.

This is, therefore, a study of history but it is history with a huge difference. It is not a standard historical treatment whereby all important events are described in a chronological sequence within the timeframe selected for the study. Rather, it adopts a conceptual framework consisting of a network of linked concepts that provides a context for the interpretation of historical events.

The particular framework developed for the study still allows, for the most part, for the chronology of events to be maintained. However, the framework determines the specific events that are described, events that are directly linked to the framework. Thus, a few of the themes that may appear in a chronological treatment are excluded, while a number of other themes that are not covered in that approach are incorporated. The end-product is a study that emphasizes relationships among the themes and so ensures that it holds together as a cohesive narrative.

The conceptual framework for the study is shown in a schematic diagram on the cover of the book and in the introductory chapter where it is fully described. The concepts that underpin the framework are elaborated upon further at the beginning of each chapter of the book.

An additional distinctive feature of the study is that an attempt is made to highlight the major achievements of the most important personalities who influenced parts of that history. These assessments serve to round up the chapters in which a particular personality looms large.

It is my fervent hope that the book makes for an engaging reading as a result of the events being placed into a framework that logically ties them all together. It is also my humble sentiment that the book is seen to provide a fresh perspective on, and interpretive insights into major events in the Islamic history.

I am deeply indebted to Zeenat M. Datoo, a graphic designer residing in London, U.K. for preparing the illustrations included in the book.

In my attempt to serve the cause of Allah (swt), I humbly seek His forgiveness and mercy for any errors of fact and interpretation.

Bashir A. Datoo

October 2014

Explanatory Notes

The Qur’anic verses cited in this book are generally from the English translation of M. H. Shakir (Holy Qur’an) or that of Ali Quli Qara’i (The Qur’an: With a Phrase-by-Phrase English Translation). For flow or clarification of the verses, words have been inserted in parenthesis as needed from the translations of two other authors, S. V. Mir Ahmed Ali (The Holy Qur’an: With English Translation of the Arabic Text and Commentary) and Abdullah Yusuf Ali (The Holy Qur’an: Text, Translation and Commentary).

References to the Qur’an are in the format of (xx: yy) – the number of the surah or chapter is shown before the colon; the number of the ayah or verse is indicated after the colon.

The abbreviations shown after the mention of Allah (swt) as well as Prophet Muhammad (s) and his successors – as individual Imams (a) or collectively as the Ahl-ul-Bayt (as) – are, respectively, a Muslim’s way of glorifying God and of sending salutation to the divinely anointed leaders. So as not to clutter the text, the abbreviations have been inserted only the first time these names appear in every section of a chapter.

Two sets of dates are shown for all events described in the book – the Islamic calendar denoted by AH and the corresponding Gregorian calendar designated by CE. (For explanation of the Islamic vis-a-vis the Gregorian calendar, see the section on "Hijrah to Medina as a Major Milestone" in Chapter III.)

Conceptual Framework for Islamic History

What is a Conceptual Framework?

A conceptual framework consists of a set of concepts and the relationships among them. These concepts are organized within a logical and sequential structure either in a narrative and/or graphical form. The purpose is to provide a focus and a tool for the integration and interpretation, in the present case, of historical phenomena. Stated briefly, a conceptual framework is a network of linked concepts that provides a context for the interpretation of historical events.

There are several key benefits of using a conceptual framework. First and foremost, it provides the ability to move beyond descriptions of what and where to explanations of how and why. Second, it ensures coherence in the narrative which then flows logically from one chapter to the next, and from one section of a chapter to another. Third, it sets boundaries for the scope and the timeframe for the study. Finally, it serves as a filtering tool, so all related material is incorporated and no extraneous information is included.

Provided the conceptual framework is comprehensive, it should encompass virtually all the information that is discussed in a standard chronological approach of the early Islamic history at the same time as it should necessitate additional analyses to interconnect the concepts and provide coherence to the entire narrative.

The conceptual framework developed for the book is shown via a schematic diagram and described in the narrative below; the different concepts of the framework are bolded in the narrative for ease of their identification. Along with the framework is the chart of the timeline of historic phases and events which is shown in the Appendix.

What are the Linked Concepts of the Framework?

Foundational Revolution: The present study begins with the first revolution in Islamic history that was ushered in by Prophet Muhammad (s) who Muslims believe is the seal of a long line of prophets. Within a short period of just over two decades, his revolution transformed the whole structure of the Arabian society and overhauled all of its institutions.

A radical revolution that challenges the vested interests of the elite of the society evokes a reaction on their part with a view to sabotaging and, if possible, reversing it. The reaction often occurs in phases played out over a long period of time especially if the elite underestimate the power of the revolution. Lack of success during the initial phases may then lead to a progressive intensification of efforts in subsequent phases to arrest the march of the revolution. The counter-reaction to the Prophet’s revolution began with his molestation and his converts’ persecution.

Subversion of the Prophet’s Movement: It commenced as soon as Prophet Muhammad took his divine message to the community in Mecca. The first stage was directed at the Prophet himself with a view to stopping him from preaching his message and, when it failed, to undermining his integrity both within and outside of Mecca.

The next stage moved beyond the person of the Prophet to actions against the early converts to Islam, including the family of the Prophet. The goal was to harass the Muslims for their audacity in accepting the Prophet’s call and for serving as a deterrent to other potential converts. These two stages were not discreet; at some point, they fused together.

When there was a threat to the life of the Prophet, he was instructed by Allah (swt) to migrate to Medina where he was preceded as well as followed by his group of converts. He succeeded in establishing there the first Islamic city-sate and assuming comprehensive politico- religious authority over his ummah or community. The counter-reaction now involved an armed struggle.

Insurrection against the Prophet’s Islamic City-State: There was a radical shift in focus – it turned from the Prophet and his followers to the Islamic city-state of Medina. A series of battles were waged against the Muslims with a view to weakening the flock and destabilizing their city-state leading to its ultimate collapse.

As the battles ended in a stalemate or in the defeat of the Meccans, they realized that they could not dislodge the Prophet. They therefore signed a peace treaty with him but, when they violated its terms, the Prophet marched on Mecca and took over the city. The Quraishites accepted Islam but their goal now was to subvert the religion under the cover of being its followers.

By this time, most of the populated areas of the Arabian Peninsula embraced Islam and some converts were found farther afield. Islam had become a mainstream religion. The Prophet though was nearing the end of his life. He had declared Imam Ali b. Abi Talib (a) as his successor right at the outset of his mission in Mecca. Now he installed him in the office at Ghadir Khum on his return farewell pilgrimage to Mecca. No sooner had the Prophet passed away, a full-fledged counter-revolution ensued.

The first phase of any counter-revolution involves seizure of political power, but since the reactionaries were operating within the fold of Islam, they maneuvered to wrest the politico-religious authority of the Prophet from his appointed successor, Imam Ali, in a counter-revolutionary move.

Phase I of Counter-Revolution – Seizure of Political Power: Upon assuming power, the reactionaries then initiated a series of actions designed to legitimize and consolidate their power. Most specifically, they made a concerted effort to separate the Qur’an, the silent guide, from the Ahl-ul-Bayt (as), the speaking guides. They built up the Muslim Empire but due to the excesses of the new leadership, the khulafah, there was an insurgency and the counter-revolution was temporarily stopped in its tracks.

Interregnum – Revival of the Revolution: With the assassination of the Third Khalifah, Imam Ali was selected by consensus as the next leader of the Muslims. He set about to put the Prophet’s revolution back on track by implementing the rule of justice and equity and making a series of reforms in governmental policies and leadership practices. The counter-reactionaries figured that the only way to stop or at least slow him down was to distract him from moving full speed ahead with his reforms and, in the process, erode his base of support.

Phase II of Counter-Revolution – Launch of Civil Wars: A number of civil wars were waged on the basis of unsubstantiated allegations against Imam Ali. A grave consequence of one of the wars was that a group of erstwhile supporters of the Imam, the Kharijites, turned into, in modern terminology, terrorists and assassinated the Imam. The reactionaries had been planning and preparing for such a scenario, an opportunity to reinvigorate their counter-revolution.

Interregnum (Continued) – Relinquishment of Power: Imam Hasan b. Ali (a) was declared as the next successor of the Prophet and received the support of the core provinces of the Muslim Empire. Muawiya b. Abi Sufyan, an Umayyad Governor of Greater Syria, had designs on the khilafah and, to wrest control of the Empire from Imam Hasan, advanced with a huge army. His goal was not to fight the Imam, but with a combination of rumors and bribes, brought about desertions from the Imam’s army. Imam Hasan made a strategic decision to relinquish power on the explicit understanding that Muawiya will not nominate his successor.

Phase III of Counter Revolution – Transformation of Khilafah into Kingship: With the establishment of the Umayyad Dynasty, Muawiya transformed the khilafah into kingship. He made explicit what was hitherto implicit, the separation of church and state in Islam, that is, the division between spiritual and political leadership into two separate offices.

The wholesale fabrication of hadith to degrade the status of the Prophet and his progeny and to enjoin obedience to the rulers intensified just as distortions and innovations in the religion multiplied manifold. Next, Muawiya violated a key term of the peace treaty that he had signed with Imam Hasan. He made his son, Yazid, his heir apparent to ensure the continuation of the Umayyad dynasty. Yazid made no pretensions of religious beliefs and engaged in the most immoral and unethical behavior that does not become a Muslim, let alone a ruler of the Muslim ummah. It was a clarion call for decisive action by the next in line for the position of the imamah, Imam Husain b. Ali (a).

Reformation of the Society: Imam Husain did not seek to overthrow Yazid’s regime. In his mission statement, he used the Qur’anic term of islah which means to repair or restore. He merely wished to ingrain in the Muslim minds the fundamental Islamic obligations of enjoining good and forbidding evil, not just at the individual level but also at the societal level. He opted therefore for a unique strategy of martyrdom for only self-sacrifice would powerfully and effectively raise the consciousness of Muslims. The stage was set for the epic Tragedy of Karbala.

The political impact of the Tragedy had a profound consequence on the future structure of the Muslim polity. The population yearned for a more active policy designed to overthrow the ruling dynasty which was despised for its autocratic rule and libertine lifestyle. Consequently, there were several revolts against the Umayyad regime. Those that were led by the claimants of the Alid branch of Bani Hashim (the Prophet’s clan) were all crushed, while the one led by the Abbasid branch succeeded in overthrowing the Umayyads.

All claimants from the family of Bani Hashim maintained that religious and political authority had to be combined in one person. With the successful establishment of the second ruling dynasty of the Abbasids, the Imam at that time, Ja’far as-Sadiq (a), had to elucidate the doctrine of imamah. He divided it into two separate institutions and argued that the office of the imamah was not contingent upon the imam’s investiture as a khalifah. Rather, due to the adverse political conditions, the Imams’ right to exercise political authority was held in abeyance until conditions improved for them to assume the comprehensive authority of the Prophet. This meant the postponement of the fusion of religious and political authority until the return of the last successor, Imam Muhammad al- Mahdi (a), who had gone into the occultation.

Parallel Existence of Religio-Economic Systems: By the end of the Umayyad dynasty, the Muslim Empire stretched from the Atlantic Ocean in the west to the Indus River (Pakistan) in the east. The Imams were under constant surveillance of the rulers and could not thus communicate directly with their followers in distant lands. They thus set up a network of disciples, the rijal, who were trained in theological and juridical fields to formulate and articulate the Islamic law and then dispersed to different areas of the Empire that had significant Shia concentrations. The Imams also received obligatory dues and charitable donations from their distant followers. While some of the rijal performed the administrative function of receiving and distributing these funds, it was the primary duty of another class of agents with whom the Imams communicated through an underground network of cells, the wikala system, to divert suspicion of the rulers.

With the establishment of the coterminous institution of the rijal and the system of the wikala, the Shia community was becoming autonomous and independent of the Sunni polity by around the middle of the second century AH/eighth century CE which by now had seen the diffusion of the Prophet’s comprehensive authority among various segments of the society. There was thus parallel existence of a Shia community within the actual Sunni state. It was a distinct community that accepted the authority of its own leader (the Imam), had its own ritual practices, transmitted its own theological and legal traditions, and developed its own system of collection and administration of religious dues. The system had thus fused religious and communal leadership.

Renewed Revolution: With the occultation of the last imam, Imam al-Mahdi, the role of the rijal (jurists) and wukala (administrators) was gradually assumed by the marajah who the believers of Ahl-ul-Bayt are obligated to follow in matters of divine law pending the return of the Imam. During this period, many changes will have occurred in the religion and the laws of Islam will be interpreted in accordance with the wishes of the people. As a result, many teachings and laws will be forgotten as if they were never a part of Islam. When the Imam appears, he will restore the shariah as introduced by Prophet Muhammad. His program will be seen as something new but, in reality, it will be the same message.

The return of the Imam will mark the fulfillment of Allah’s promise in the Qur’an. Islam in the Abrahamic tradition of submission to the One and Only God will be the religion of everyone, and a global community with one system of law will be established under the leadership of the Mahdi. It will be the golden age of peace and harmony.

The present study ends with the renewed revolution of Imam al-Mahdi just as it began with the foundational revolution of Prophet Muhammad. These two revolutions form, as it were, the bookends of Islamic history.

Concept of Revolution

Revolution is generally thought of as a major, sudden change – a change that is so radical and profound that it marks the end of one period and the beginning of another. Such a revolution typically involves a change in such areas as government, leadership, policies and values. Examples of such revolutions include the French (1789), Russian (1917), Chinese (1949) and Iranian (1979) revolutions.

However, a revolution can also involve a slow, deliberate change – a change in, say, economic relationships or technological conditions that marks a fundamental departure from a previous historical pattern. Such a revolution transforms the entire society but takes many years, if not generations to bring about. Examples of such revolutions are the Industrial Revolution (of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries) and the Information Revolution (of the second half of the 20th century and beyond).

Prophet Muhammad (s)’s religious revolution was of the second kind. Georg Hegel, the German philosopher of the nineteenth century, saw revolution as the fulfillment of human destiny and revolutionary leaders as persons necessary to instigate and implement reforms. Such a conception aptly describes the Prophet’s revolution of the early seventh century.

Allah (swt) had sent a long chain of prophets beginning with the first creation of humankind. The chain was necessitated by the dynamic nature of society and by the subsequent decline in innate human attitudes and behaviors. With the passage of time, the message of Allah tended to be corrupted or forgotten, leading to the deterioration in the moral and ethical consciousness of the society.

The chain of prophets ended with Prophet Muhammad who is consequently referred to as the Seal of the Prophets. Human society had developed over time and now one comprehensive message was all that humankind needed to accomplish its purpose on this earth. The last verse revealed to the Prophet was as suggestive as it was reassuring:

"This day have I perfected for you your religion and completed My favor on you and chosen for you Islam as a religion …." (5:3). The Qur’an, then, is Allah’s complete and final message that is designed to be a guide, a roadmap for humankind until the end of time.

Arabian Society before Islam

Before the revolution launched by Prophet Muhammad (s) is discussed, it is important to appreciate the state of Arabia before the advent of Islam for two key reasons.

• First, it will explain the enormous challenges that the Prophet faced and the virulent opposition that he encountered in trying to bring about the revolution designed to transform the entire structure and outlook of the society. This will lead to an appreciation of the amazing success that he achieved in the fulfillment of his mission within a relatively short period of 23 years.

• Second, it will provide insights into the vicissitudes of the religio-political order in the aftermath of the revolution as captured in the conceptual framework adopted for this book. This will result in an understanding of the turmoil that exists among Muslims and the need for a renewal of the revolution.

Geographical Location and Historical Background

Arabia is a large peninsula located in the south-west corner of Asia. It is surrounded by sea on three sides – the Persian Gulf in the east, the Arabian Sea in the south and the Red Sea in the west. The northern part is bounded by the extensive Syrian Desert. It would appear therefore that the natural barriers of the peninsula impeded the penetration of foreign influences.

Notwithstanding the relative isolation of the peninsula, two superpowers of the time existed to its north – the Byzantine Empire to the west and the Persian Empire to the east (see the map of Arabia and Environs, Early Seventh Century in the Appendix). Even though the two powers were constantly at war with each other seeking to expand their territorial control, neither ever chose to penetrate Arabia. Perhaps this was partly because of its arid, hostile environment and partly because of its warring, uncultured people. Arabia therefore was never colonized in history.

Tribal Structure

The most remarkable feature of Arabia was that, except for Yemen in the south-west, there was no political organization of any form at any time in the rest of the peninsula. The only authority that the Arabs recognized was that of the chiefs of their tribes. Members of the tribe subordinated their needs and desires to the well-being of the group that consisted of only blood relatives and confederates. The way of life that the forefathers bequeathed to their descendants was considered sacred and inviolable. They called this tribal glory hasab (ancestral honor).

Since there was no central authority, there was no law and no order in Arabia. The only protection a person could find from the enemies was within their own tribe. The tribe considered its obligation to protect its members even if they had committed crimes. Thus, the tribes who roamed the steppes were locked up in ceaseless warfare with their neighbors for water and pastures for their animals in a desolate environment that offered little of either resource.

Religious Beliefs

Given that the pagan Arabs were polytheists, one would have expected them to be vehemently opposed to monotheism. However, the Qur’an says that they acknowledged who the creator of the universe was: "And if you ask them who created the heavens and the earth, they will certainly say, Allah …. (31:25). It was on the basis of their innate disposition that the pagan Arabs subscribed to the notion of god as the creator of the universe. However, they did not acknowledge His Oneness, so they worshipped many idols as intermediaries. As the Qur’an states, And they serve beside Allah what can neither harm them nor profit them, and they say: ‘These are our intercessors with Allah’ …." (10:18).

The Ka’bah, which had been rebuilt by Prophet Ibrahim and his son Prophet Ismail on the original foundation and dedicated by them to the service of One God (2:127), was turned into a pantheon housing 360 idols of stone and wood. The Quraish of Mecca worshipped Hubal, the highest-ranking idol, which was represented by a large, reddish stone and stood inside the Ka’bah. They, along with the settled communities, also worshipped three goddesses – al-Lat, al-Uzza and Manat (53:19-21) – who were often called the daughters of Allah – whose sanctuaries were in the vicinity of Mecca. The Bedouin tribes had their own deities and the Quraish collected them and installed them in and around the Ka’bah, so the tribesmen could worship them when they visited Mecca.

Social Customs

Women did not have status of any kind in Arabia. They were considered simply as sex objects. A man could marry any number of wives he chose. When he died, his son inherited all his wives except his own mother. Furthermore, the relations of the sexes were extremely loose.

The Arab society was patriarchic and believed in the nobility of having a son and disgrace in having a daughter. Sons played an important economic and military role, whereas daughters ran the risk of falling into enemy hands during a conflict or bringing dishonor to the family if they married into a tribe with a lower status. Infanticide was therefore a widespread practice (16:58-59).

The Arabs were addicted to drinking, gambling and music. Dancing and singing was practiced by a class of women occupying a servile position whose immorality was proverbial. They used to give receptions which were attended by the great chiefs of Mecca.

Many of the Arabs were also very superstitious. Sometimes when they entered a village, they would bray like a donkey ten times just to chase away evil spirits. Other times they would enter their homes from behind or from the windows just to drive the spirits away. When a person died, they would keep a camel near their grave and cut its legs until it died as well. They believed the person who died would ride the camel on the Day of Judgment and would not have to rise on foot.

Literary Accomplishments

There were extremely few Arabs of the peninsula who could read and write. The culture of the period was thus almost entirely oral. The custodians of such knowledge as existed were the minority Christian and Jews who lived in the western part and who were respectively converts (converted by the Romans in the north and Ethiopians in the south) and migrants (after the Romans destroyed Jerusalem and drove them out of Palestine in 70 CE).

The pagan Arabs could boast of one great literary accomplishment, their poetry. It was rich in imagery and eloquence but it was limited in range and lacked in depth. However, it was a faithful mirror of life in ancient Arabia. Their greatest compositions were the Golden Odes, a collection of seven poems, thought to be of unsurpassed excellence. They were suspended in the Ka’bah as a challenge to any aspiring poet to excel or match them.

Cities of Hijaz

Hijaz is the western part of Arabia bordering the Red Sea, and economically and socially, it was the most important province of Arabia in the early seventh century (see the map of Arabia and Environs, Early Seventh Century in the Appendix). The largest city in this region was Mecca whose history dated from the time of Prophet Ibrahim who raised the walls of the Ka’bah with the help of his son Prophet Ismail. The latter settled in Mecca and there were many tribes from his descendants, the most famous being the Quraish.

The land around Mecca is somewhat saline and not all cultivable. Its inhabitants were thus mostly traders and money-lenders. During the early part of the sixth century, Bedouin tribes had begun to exchange goods with one another. A series of regular trade fairs (suk) were held each year with traders circling the peninsula in a clockwise direction. The cycle concluded with consecutive fairs in and around Mecca before the hajj season. During the next century, the Byzantine and Persian empires were locked in a series of wars that fatally weakened both. The border areas became a battleground and many of the old trade routes were abandoned. Mecca took control of the intermediary trade between the north and south. The Meccan merchants fitted out trade caravans twice a year, once in the winter to Yemen in the south-west and again in the summer to Syria in the north-west. The caravans were financed by money lenders who charged a high interest rate.

To the north of Mecca, at a distance of just over 200 miles, is Medina. Before Islam the city was called Yathrib but, after the Prophet’s migration to the city, it was renamed as Medina-tun-Nabi (City of the Prophet). Later it was abbreviated simply to Medina. The two main Arab tribes who lived there were Aws and Khazraj but there was also a significant Jewish minority who moved there and to the surrounding areas after the fall of Jerusalem.

The Medinite Arabs made their living by farming and the Jews made theirs as businessmen and industrialists. The latter thus controlled the economic life of the city. Because of their practice of usury, the Arab tribes were perennially indebted to them. There were also many Jewish farmers in the fertile valleys and oases.

Age of Jahiliyyah

Prophet Muhammad thus had to launch his revolution in a society that was torn by fratricidal and inter-tribal feuds, marked by lawlessness and cruelty, sunk in ignorance and apathy, and addicted to obscene rites and superstitions. The term jahiliyyah (ignorance) used to characterize the pre-Islamic period refers not so much to an historical era as it does to the state of mind of the pagan Arabs as described in this chapter.

Groundwork for the Revolution

Muhammad b. Abdullah (s) was born a Prophet on 17th Rabil Awwal 53 BH (25h August 570 CE). However, Allah (swt) did not command him to declare his Prophethood until he was 40 years old. There was obviously divine wisdom in this prolonged wait.

Establishment of Moral Credentials and Track Record

Given the beliefs and customs of the Arabian society as described in the previous section, it was clear that Muhammad would face an enormous challenge in trying to convey his message. He therefore had to first establish his credentials before he could begin his mission. He led such an impeccable life that he left a great impression on the Meccan Arabs. They came to refer to him by the attributes of "al-ameen, the truthful one, and as-sadik," the trustworthy one – the two traits that were crucial for the success of his mission.

The respect that Muhammad had earned among the Arabs for his integrity is best illustrated by a couple of incidents on the eve of his proclamation. One, when the Quraish were rebuilding the Ka’bah after a flash flood that made cracks in its walls, the Black Stone (Hajar- ul-Aswad), had to be lifted from the ground and put in its place in one of its corners. Each clan claimed the honor for itself and the disagreement led to arguments and threats. At that moment, an old Arab intervened and suggested that they should seek the counsel of the first man to enter the precincts of the Ka’bah the next morning.

As the gate of the Ka’bah opened the following day, Muhammad entered through it. They all had faith in him and agreed to abide by his decision. Muhammad ordered a sheet of cloth to be spread on the ground. He then placed the Stone on it and asked each chief to lift one of the corners and to carry it to the foot of the Ka’bah. He then lifted the stone himself and placed it in position. His judgment pleased everyone; he had saved faces and avoided bloodshed.

Second, when Muhammad climbed the hill of Safa in Mecca to publicly declare his Prophethood, – as was customary whenever a public announcement had to be made – he first tested his audience by asking them if they would believe him if he told them that there were enemies beyond the hill waiting to attack them. Knowing who the man was, they responded with a resounding yes as they had never heard him tell a lie.

Even after the Prophet began his mission, the Arabs looked back and realized that the life that he had led was in absolute conformity with the teachings of the religion that he now propagated. He had never bowed his head to any idol and had never committed any of the pagan practices and customs that the Qur’an condemns. Muhammad had,