Seaweed in Health and Disease Prevention

Seaweed in Health and Disease Prevention presents the potential usage of seaweed, macroalgae, and their extracts for enhancing health and disease. The book explores the possibilities in a comprehensive way, including outlining how seaweed can be used as a source of macronutrients and micronutrients, as well as nutraceuticals. The commercial value of seaweed for human consumption is increasing year-over-year, and some countries harvest several million tons annually. This text lays out the properties and effects of seaweeds and their use in the food industry, offering a holistic view of the ability of seaweed to impact or effect angiogenesis, tumors, diabetes and glucose control, oxidative stress, fungal infections, inflammation and infection, the gut, and the liver.

• Combines foundational information and nutritional context, offering a holistic approach to the relationship between sea vegetables, diet, nutrition, and health
• Provides comprehensive coverage of health benefits, including sea vegetables as sources of nutraceuticals and their specific applications in disease prevention, such as angiogenesis, diabetes, fungal infections, and others
• Includes Dictionary of Terms, Key Facts, and Summary points in each chapter to enhance comprehension
• Includes information on toxic varieties and safe consumption guidelines to supplement basic coverage of health benefits

• Language: English
• Publisher: Academic Press
• Release date: Apr 5, 2016
• ISBN: 9780128027936

Book preview

Seaweed in Health and Disease Prevention

Editors

Joël Fleurence

Ira Levine

Table of Contents

Cover image

Title page

Copyright

Dedication

List of Contributors

About the Editors

Acknowledgment

Chapter 1. Algae: A Way of Life and Health

Chapter 2. Society and Seaweed: Understanding the Past and Present

Introduction

Uses of Seaweed: Past and Present

New Industrial Uses of Seaweed

Harvesting

Institutions and Management

Discussion: Looking Forward

Chapter 3. Biology of Seaweeds

Introduction

Ecology of Seaweeds

Defense Mechanisms in Seaweeds

Effect of Climate Change on the Seaweed Community

Range of Thallus Organization

Major Groups of Seaweeds

Commercial Applications of Seaweeds

Chapter 4. Macroalgae Systematics

Introduction

Green Algae

Brown Algae

Red Algae

Chapter 5. Seaweeds as Food

Introduction

Seaweed Resources

Valorization of Seaweeds

Valorization in Human Food

Valorization as Sea Vegetables or Ingredients

Composition and Nutritional Value of Seaweeds

Valorization as a Source of Hydrocolloids

Seaweeds as a Source of Animal Nutrition

Valorization of Pigments as Food Colorants

Macerated Seaweeds

Fermented Seaweeds

Other Food Processes

New Food Extracts

Conclusion

Chapter 6. Seaweed and Alcohol: Biofuel or Booze?

Introduction

Species and Production

Cultivation Systems

Processing and Fermentation of Macroalgae Biomass

Consumptive Alcohol

Seaweed to Make Alcohol and Seaweeds That Serve as Distillation Apparatus

Hard Liquor

Craft Beers

Wine

Concluding Remarks

Chapter 7. Lipids, Fatty Acids, Glycolipids, and Phospholipids

Total Lipid Content

Distribution of Fatty Acids in Seaweed Lipids

Lipid Composition

Algal Lipid in Health and Disease Prevention

Abbreviations

Chapter 8. Carbohydrates From Seaweeds

Introduction

Structure of Carbohydrates

Specificities of Carbohydrates From Seaweeds

Properties of Carbohydrates

Conclusion

Chapter 9. Proteins and Pigments

Introduction

Pigments

Proteins

Conclusion and Future Trends

Chapter 10. Seaweeds in Human Health

Introduction

Seaweeds and Cancer

Seaweeds and Cardiovascular Health

Seaweeds and Obesity, Metabolic Syndrome, and Diabetes

Seaweeds and Osteoporosis

Seaweeds and Gut Health

Neurological Benefit of Seaweeds

Conclusion

Chapter 11. Medicinal Properties: Antibiotic, Tonic, and Antiparasitic Properties

Introduction

Conclusion

Chapter 12. Antiallergic Properties

Introduction

Antiallergic Compounds

Macroalgal Phenols

Perspectives

Harmlessness

Conclusion

Chapter 13. Toxic and Harmful Seaweeds

Introduction

Incidents of Fresh Seaweeds Causing Illness and Death

Health Concerns and Harmful Effects of Seaweed Products

Harmful Community and Ecosystem Effects of Seaweeds

Chapter 14. Seaweed Application in Cosmetics

Introduction

General Aspects of Cosmetic Formulation

Macroalgae as a Source of Active Ingredients

Seaweeds as a Source of Excipients

Seaweeds as a Source of Additives

Conclusion

Index

Copyright

Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier

125 London Wall, London EC2Y 5AS, UK

525 B Street, Suite 1800, San Diego, CA 92101-4495, USA

50 Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA

The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, UK

Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Details on how to seek permission, further information about the Publisher’s permissions policies and our arrangements with organizations such as the Copyright Clearance Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website: www.elsevier.com/permissions.

This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher (other than as may be noted herein).

Notices

Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary.

Practitioners and researchers may always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.

To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress

ISBN: 978-0-12-802772-1

For information on all Academic Press publications visit our website at https://www.elsevier.com/

Publisher: Nikki Levy

Acquisition Editor: Megan Ball

Editorial Project Manager: Billie Jean Fernandez

Production Project Manager: Jason Mitchell

Designer: Mark Rogers

Typeset by TNQ Books and Journals

www.tnq.co.in

Dedication

To my sons Julien and Simon for the joy and the happiness that they bring to my life.

—Joël Fleurence

To Dr. Patricia Bonamo for her faith in playing a hunch.

To MILKS for their loving support and to my wife and best friend Laurie.

—Ira Levine

List of Contributors

E. Ar Gall,     University of Brest, Brest, France

J.-M. Bard,     University of Nantes, Nantes, France

P. Baweja,     University of Delhi, Delhi, India

N. Bourgougnon,     UBS, IUEM, Vannes, France

D. Cheney,     Northeastern University, Nahant, MA, United States

L. Coiffard,     University of Nantes, Nantes, France

C. Couteau,     University of Nantes, Nantes, France

A. Couzinet-Mossion,     University of Nantes, Nantes, France

C. Dawes,     University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, United States

A. Delaney,     Aalborg University, Aalborg, Denmark

P. Déléris,     University of Nantes, Nantes, France

E. Deslandes,     IUEM-UBO, Technopôle Brest-Iroise, Plouzané, France

J. Dumay,     University of Nantes, Nantes, France

J. Fleurence,     University of Nantes, Nantes, France

K. Frangoudes,     Université de Brest, UMR AMURE, Brest, France

S.-A. Ii,     Miyazaki Municipal University, Miyazaki, Japan

M. Kendel,     Bureau d’Etudes et Conseil, Vannes, France

S. Kraan,     Ocean Harvest Technology, Milltown, Ireland

S. Kumar,     University of Delhi, Delhi, India

I. Levine,     University of Southern Maine, Lewiston, ME, United States

M. Morançais,     University of Nantes, Nantes, France

H. Nazih,     University of Nantes, Nantes, France

D. Sahoo,     University of Delhi, Delhi, India

V. Stiger-Pouvreau,     IUEM-UBO, Technopôle Brest-Iroise, Plouzané, France

C. Vonthron-Sénécheau,     University of Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France

G. Wielgosz-Collin,     University of Nantes, Nantes, France

About the Editors

Dr. Ira A. Levine, PhD, is a tenured professor of natural and applied sciences at the University of Southern Maine, Chairperson of the USM Lewiston Auburn College Faculty, and Director of the USM, LAC Aquatic Research Lab (algal genetic engineering, physiological ecology, and new product development). In addition, Dr. Levine is the President and Board Chair of the Algae Foundation and President and Board Chair of Professors Beyond Borders. Dr. Levine was awarded a 2009–10 US State Department, Fulbright New Century Scholar and in 2007–08 was a visiting professor of biology at Duke University. Dr. Levine combines 30  years of applied and basic research in molecular, physiological ecology, and cultivation of algae, aquatic farming management, and aquaculture engineering. Dr. Levine’s farming experience includes open-ocean and pond cultivation in Canada, China, Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia, the Philippines, and the United States (Hawaii, Florida, and Maine). Current efforts include algal cultivar enhancement for aquaculture and agriculture feed supplementation, human nutraceuticals and cosmaceuticals, fine chemicals, and plant-based biofuels.

Dr. Joel Fleurence, PhD, is a professor of marine biology and biochemistry at Nantes University. He is one of two directors of the Research Laboratory Sea, Molecules, Health. He has been a member of the University National Council since 2007 and was elected vice-president of the section Biology of Organisms in 2011. He is a senior scientist and an international expert on seaweed valorization (100 international publications including patents). In 1985, he began his research career in the pharmaceutical industry in the French company Roussel-Uclaf. In 1990, he was recruited by the Institute of Valorisation of Seaweeds (CEVA, Brittany, France) to lead research into the chemical composition and nutritional properties of macroalgae. Professor Fleurence has participated in the establishment of the French regulation on marine algae used as sea vegetables. In 1994, he was appointed head of the laboratory Proteins and Quality at Ifremer (Research French Organism for the Sea Exploitation) and developed research on the nutritional properties of seaweed protein for use in human or animal food. Since 2002, he has been working as a professor at the University of Nantes and leads research on the development of seaweed uses as protein or pigment sources for industry.

Acknowledgment

The editors thank Mr. O. Barbaroux for the photographs of seaweed factories and markets.

Chapter 1

Algae

A Way of Life and Health

I. Levine     University of Southern Maine, Lewiston, ME, United States

Abstract

Macroalgae (seaweeds) are a diverse group of predominantly marine, multicellular, photosynthetic, chlorophyll a-containing, eukaryotic organisms found from the intertidal zone to 300-m deep. The approximately 10,000 described macroalgal species are segregated by photosynthetic pigment content, carbohydrate food reserve, cell wall components, and flagella construction and orientation. This eclectic group has evolved over the last 600–900  million years occupying a variety of ecological niches. The diverse utilization of seaweeds for medicinal purposes include: goiter, intestinal afflictions, cancer, cervix dilation, laxative, wound dressing, cholesterol reduction, bleeding control, vermifuge, urinary tract infections, diarrhea, breast infections, tuberculosis, breaking of fevers, headaches, scabies, cardiovascular disease, and fungal infections. The editors have assembled a group of contributors, dedicated to the advancement of algae, experts in their fields of endeavor bringing seaweeds and their role in health and disease prevention to a diverse group of readers.

Keywords

Aquatic plants; Health and disease; Macroalgae; Seaweeds

Vilor alga (translated as more vile or worthless than algae), wrote Virgil, the Latin Poet, in 30 BC. Civilization was aware of the role of algae in the human condition long before Virgil. The use of macroalgae dates back to Shen Nung, the father of husbandry and medicine, approximately 3000 BC (Doty, 1979). Seaweeds were reported to be utilized in Iceland in 960 BC, the Chinese Book of Poetry (800–600 BC) praised housewives for cooking with algae, and the Chinese Materia Medica (600 BC) refers to algae as follows: Some algae are a delicacy fit for the most honorable guest, even for the King himself (Porterfield, 1922; Wood, 1974).

Macroalgae (seaweeds) are a diverse group of predominantly marine, multicellular, photosynthetic, chlorophyll a-containing, eukaryotic organisms, lacking true roots, stems, and leaves with simple reproductive structures and found from the intertidal zone to 300-m deep. The macroalgae or seaweeds are evolutionarily diverse and are found in two kingdoms, Plantae and Chromista, and four phyla, Charophyta (Chara), Chlorophyta (green), Rhodophyta (red), and Ochrophyta (brown). The approximately 10,000 described marine macroalgal species are segregated by photosynthetic pigment content, carbohydrate food reserve, cell wall components, and flagella construction and orientation. This eclectic group has evolved over the last 600–900  million years occupying a variety of ecological niches, ie, attached to hard substrata, unconsolidated sand and mud, other algae, seagrasses, free floating, and, on rare occasions, parasitic. There are many additional groups of algae, known collectively as microalgae, including but not limited to the blue green bacteria (eg, Spirulina sp.), diatoms, and dinoflagellates, which can form biofilms, colonial formations, and turfs. Occasionally these formations are considered macroalgae, but for the purpose of this text they lie outside of the scope of this book.

Early examples of utilization of seaweeds for medicinal purposes include the Chinese use of Sargassum for goiter (16th century, Chinese herbal, Pen Tsae Kan Mu), Gelidium for intestinal afflictions, and Laminaria for the dilation of the cervix in difficult child births (Dawson, 1966). The Japanese’s lack of goiter (one case/million people) is contributed to their large consumption of seaweed and their iodine concentration. Oriental seaweed iodine concentrations range from 18 to 1600  mg/kg dry weight (Chapman and Chapman, 1980). Agar, a phycocolloidal extract from commercial red algae, eg, Gracilaria, has been used since the 17th century as a laxative and is perhaps the world’s first diet fad. In addition, during times of war, agar was utilized as a wound dressing because of its antiblood-clotting activity allowing wounds to be appropriately disinfected. Subsequently, agar was identified as the ideal substrate for culturing bacteria, assisting with the foundational research into the microbial world. Brown algal phycocolloidal extracts, alginate and algin, have been used in the binding of pills and ointments, cholesterol reduction, as a hemostatic agent (control of bleeding), and have replaced agar as the primary dental mold gel. The ancient Greeks utilized red algae as a vermifuge, thought to be the same alga rediscovered on Corsica in 1775, known as Corsican moss. Finally, a common alga from both North America and Europe, Chondrus crispus, a red alga, has been used as a remedy for urinary tract infections, diarrhea, breast infections, and tuberculosis (Dawson, 1966). Additional traditional algal uses as medicines include: dulse (Palmaria palmata) extract used to assist in breaking of fevers (18th-century England), bull kelp steam extract used to fight headaches (Alaska, USA), Durvillaea as a cure for scabies (New Zealand), and antifungal and antibiotic compounds from the brown, green and red algae (Chapman and Chapman, 1980).

The inclusion of large amounts of seaweeds in a balanced diet has been connected to decreased rates of many of the Western lifestyle diseases (eg, cancer, cardiovascular diseases). Reduced rates of breast cancer in postmenopausal Japanese women are thought to be connected to the ingestion of seaweeds in general and the kelps Kombu and Wakame in particular. Potential mechanisms include: increased fiber influence on fecal bulk and bowel transit time, alteration of posthepatic metabolism of sterols, antibiotic and enzymatic influence on enteric bacterial populations, and increased immune response (Teas, 1983, as reported in Erhart, 2015a). Additional research efforts include (1) a 95% reduction in cancer rates when fed a hot water-extracted kelp powder and (2) apoptosis of stomach, colon, and leukemia cancer cells by F- and U-fucoidan-sulfated polysaccharides from kelps (Yamamoto et al., 1986 and Anonymous, 1990–1996, as reported in MCSV Cancer Prevention and Treatment bulletin). Miller (2008 as reported in Erhart, 2015b) reported an increase in fibrocystic breast disease in American women rose from 3% to 90% in the 1920s and 2000s, respectively. In addition, he infers that 15% of American women experience iodine deficiencies and the same percentage of American women develop breast cancer; however, Japanese women experience the lowest cancer rates by including 200 times as much iodine per day as their American counterparts (45,000  μg/day and 240  μg/day, respectively). Dr. Miller hypothesizes that both fibrocystic disease and breast cancer are iodine deficiency disorders. Kelps provide some of the highest amounts of bioavailable iodine, up to 18,000 times as much as fresh vegetables.

As a young man coming from New York City, seaweeds were considered to be just a smelly mess found on the beach but after 10  years of studying algae in Hawaii, the author has embraced his Hawaiian roots and uses the term limu, which according to Pukui and Elbert (1977) as reported by Abbott (1984) is: a general name for all kinds of plants living under water, both fresh and salt, also algae growing in any damp place in the air, as on the ground, rocks, and on other plants; also mosses, liverworts and lichens… However, for most Hawaiians, limu means edible seaweeds (Abbott, 1984). Along with fish and poi, limu constituted the troika of the Hawaiian balanced diet, providing vitamins A, B, C, minerals (iodine), and protein. Historical Hawaiian limu usage included the treatment of coral cuts, representing a nearly instant infection, which were historically treated with Sargassum, similar to the traditional use of mosses as a poultice. In addition, seaweeds were used in religious ceremonies (burial cleansing rituals), cultural celebrations (weddings and hula dancing), and family celebrations.

Is Seaweed the New Lobster? was a headline from the March 2015 edition of Down East: The Magazine of Maine; quite a transformation from the the stuff washed up on the beach, which tends to be rotting and full of flies (Sneddon, 2015). Maine, a maritime-based state in the northeastern corner of the United States, has a long history of seaweed utilization dating back to its colonial period and beyond, when marine macroalgae were referred to as sea manure (Sneddon, 2015). As algae in general and seaweeds in particular have played an ever-increasing role in the human diet, health, and well-being, its utilization and product development have rapidly expanded our appreciation for its diversity of uses. As with lobsters, which were plentiful and served up as food for the state’s prisoner population, seaweeds have been experiencing a frameshift from the smelly stuff on the beach to a source of valued balanced nutrition.

Shep Erhart, the founder of Maine Coast Sea Vegetables, is a pioneer of seaweed utilization in the United States and has dedicated his life to the development and marketing of seaweed products throughout America and beyond. In the 1970s he realized the potential for seaweeds as a complete source of colloidal, chelated minerals, trace elements, and vitamins to replace the loss of these nutrients from processed food products. Some people who are mineral deficient get around it and they go crazy…It can kind of buzz you out because it is so energizing (Shep Erhart, quoted from Sneddon, 2015).

The Road from Science Geek to Being Cool, Algal Physiological Ecology: a Global Economic Development Engine is the title of a seminar given by the author at Middlebury College, Middlebury, Vermont, USA, in March 2010. How does one become cool being a phycologist (someone who studies algae)? Kaitlynn Levine, a Middlebury College molecular biology major, coined the phrase after algae and algal-based biofuels became a research and development priority in the United States during the 21st century. If studying algae, previous to renewed interests, was held in such disregard or benign neglect, then why would anyone dedicate his or her life to algae? Phycology has a long history of remarkable, dedicated scientists and lay practitioners who have advanced our algal-based knowledge through their tireless field and laboratory efforts. Massive algal collections were assembled and herbarium libraries established at universities (eg, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts) and museums (eg, Bishop Museum, Honolulu, Hawaii). Meticulous anatomical, reproductive, and systematic treatises were published expanding our body of knowledge. Biotechnological methodologies were incorporated into current molecular, genomic, ultrastructural, physiological ecology, and biochemical studies advancing our understanding of the biology, ecology, systematics, and commercial value of algae. Algae represent a field of study that is far from the mainstream. Phycologists have enjoyed their life’s work in relative obscurity until recent interests in seaweed farming, seaweeds as a healthy food, feed, medicine, and biofuel. Algae have enjoyed the focus and funding to move seaweed and its place in human health and disease prevention to the forefront of the human condition. The editors of this book have assembled a group of experts dedicated to the advancement of algae, who will endeavor to bring seaweeds and their role in health and disease prevention to a diverse group of readers.

The Biology of Algae by R.A. Lewin, 1971. Phycol. Newsletter 7:1.

The biology of algae is a duty, or a task,

That consumes the better portion of your time

In the sampling of waters from an ocean, or a flask,

Or a snow-field, or a gutter-full of slime.

You get cold, and wet, and grubby; you get dusty, hot, and dry;

You get dian dejected, and defied;

But you’ll find that, if you’re lucky—if you’re good—and if you try,

You can do a little science on the side.

The biology of algae is a pastime, or an art,

That embodies a diversity of skill:

How to mend a pH meter which has somehow come apart,

Or to regulate a microscope or still;

How to edit a proposal, or a chapter of a book;

How to float upon the academic tide;

How to teach a fellow creature how to speak, or how to cook,

And a little bit of science on the side.

The biology of algae is a virtue, or a vice,

That entails some tricky searching of the soul.

It involves the growth of fishes, and the harvesting of rice,

And pollution, and the origins of coal.

It may get us into trouble; it may get us into space;

Its dilemmas are as long as they are wide.

It involves some moral judgements on the future of our race—

And a little bit of science on the side.

References

Abbott I.A. Limu, an Ethnobotanical Study of Some Hawaiian Seaweeds. Lawai: Pacific Tropical Botanical Garden; 1984:35.

Anonymous. Research Project: Glycobiology Research Aimed at the Development of Useful Carbohydrates. Aomori-ken. Japan: Research Institute for Glycotechnology Advancement; 1990–1996.

Chapman V.J, Chapman D.J. Seaweeds and Their Uses. London: Chapman and Hall; 1980:334.

Dawson E.Y. Marine Botany, an Introduction. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston; 1966:371.

Doty M.S. Status of marine agronomy with special reference to the tropics. Proc. Intl. Seaweed Symp. 1979;9:35–58.

Erhart S. Sea Vegetables for Cancer Prevention and Treatment. Maine Coast Sea Vegetables; 2015. http://www.seaveg.com/shop/pdfs/mcsv_brochure_cancer.pdf.

Erhart S. Sea Vegetables for Iodine Sufficiency. 2015. http://www.seaveg.com.

Lewin R.A. The Biology of Algae and Other Verses. Washington, D.C: University Press of America; 1981:103 Originally published 1971. The Biology of Algae. Phycol. Newsletter 7:1.

Miller D.W. Extrathyroidal benefits of iodine. J. Am. Physicians Surgeons. 2008;11(4):106–110.

Porterfield W.M. References to the algae in Chinese classics. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club. 1922;49:297–300.

Pukui M.K, Elbert S.H. Hawaiian Dictionary. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press; 1977 402 + 188 pp.

Sneddon R. Kelp: It’s what’s for dinner. Down East Magazine. 2015;61(8):60–72.

Teas J. The dietary intake of Laminaria, a brown seaweed, and breast cancer prevention. Nutr. Cancer. 1983;4(3).

Wood C.G. Seaweed extracts: a unique ocean resource. J. Chem. Ed. 1974;51(7):449–452.

Yamamoto I, Maruyama H, Takahashi M, Komiyama K. The effects of dietary or intraperitoneally injected seaweed preparations on the growth of sarcoma-180 cells subcutaneously implanted into mice. Cancer Lett. 1986;30(2):125–131.

Chapter 2

Society and Seaweed

Understanding the Past and Present

A. Delaney     Aalborg University, Aalborg, Denmark

K. Frangoudes     Université de Brest, UMR AMURE, Brest, France

S.-A. Ii     Miyazaki Municipal University, Miyazaki, Japan

Abstract

Throughout the world, seaweed has held an important role in culture and society. This chapter provides an overview of the uses of seaweeds and their management, focusing in particular, though not exclusively, on Atlantic coastal Europe and East Asia. Harvesting seaweed has historically been a challenging occupation, which produces status, luxury goods, and peasant food alike. Following human consumptive uses, the creativity of humans found uses for the algae as feed for animals, fertilizers, housing materials, medicines, and, today, for industrial purposes. Management institutions have evolved to sustainably harvest these algae and these institutions reflect local cultures and values in which all harvesters are recognized, especially women. Women's contributions are very important in this industry, for both wild harvesting as well as farming.

Though the use of seaweeds and seaweed harvesting has waxed and waned over the years, particularly for many isolated regions, it remains a critically important resource even today.

Keywords

Blue growth; Culture; Division of labor; East Asia; Europe; Farming; Gender roles; Harvesting; Human consumption; Industrial uses; Management Institutions

Introduction

This chapter provides a general overview of the human dimensions of seaweeds, their uses, management, and harvesting techniques, touching upon not only the history of seaweeds, but also their future.

For centuries, coastal populations have harvested a wide variety of seaweeds within all the algal groups: red (Rhodophyta), brown (Phaeophyceae), and green (Chlorophyta). They were most often first used for domestic purposes, such as for human consumption; later, industrial uses were discovered. In many areas the increased demand for seaweed pushed harvesters to search for more effective harvesting techniques and to establish rules to manage their activities (eg, France, Japan, and Korea). Since seaweeds are a natural resource they require careful management to sustainably and efficiently harvest. In some cases, harvesting and the management of seaweed may be the responsibility of the processing industry or local fishers’ organizations. These organizations, with the help of scientists, attempt to manage the resource and the ecosystem richness associated with it in sustainable ways.

Seaweeds can be a lucrative business, driven by economic rather than environmental considerations. This often meant that harvesters jumped on a mechanical treadmill, forever working to improve the technology available for increased harvests (eg, Japan) and profits. Though seaweed harvesting is often highly mechanized, some species are still harvested manually because of ecological limitations or cultural preferences, giving them greater value. Historically, there was also often a gender component involved with women being the primary harvesters of seaweeds (eg, in Wales (O’Conner, 2013), France (Frangoudes, 2011), Japan (Delaney, 2011), and Korea (Ii, 2012)) and though this has changed in many parts of the world, in others, women remain key to seaweed harvesting. Current harvesting methods, technologies, and cultural preferences have a strong connection with both historical uses and culture and society themselves. The wide variety of uses put to seaweeds today stands as testament to the ingenuity of humankind.

Uses of Seaweed: Past and Present

The most traditional uses of seaweed include both nonconsumptive and consumptive forms: as medicine, as inputs into industrial processes, as fertilizer and animal feed, and for other domestic purposes such as for building materials. Human consumptive uses include raw products, such as in salads, soups, and main dishes, including sushi, as well as in processed form such as flavorings in chips and snacks.

Nonconsumptive Human Uses

One of the most common and widespread nonconsumptive use of seaweeds was as inputs for industry, including glass and soap production.

Production of Glass and Soap

The first recorded commercial use of seaweeds in Europe is from the 17th century when they were used for the production of glass (eg, France and Norway). Production increased and expanded until, in the first half of the 18th century, burning kelp was allowed along the French coastline, enabling algae ashes to replace wood ash in glass production. In France, glass was the most important industry for seaweed harvesters until markets developed for kelp in iodine manufacturing. Founded in Normandy, plants for this industry extended to Brittany, where algal resources were more abundant. In the 1770s the first plants producing soda were also established in this region. At this time, algae were predried over dunes and then the seaweed was burned in stone ovens (Fig. 2.1). This activity required the participation of entire families because of the intensity of labor required. In fact, additional assistance of laborers from inland communities was often also required because of the intensity of the labor (Frangoudes, 2011; Frangoudes and Garineaud, 2015). In the French case the use of kelp, for potash production, altered the structure of the harvesting, which now became more intensive. In these areas, seaweed or potash is no longer used for household needs, but became a pure industrial input.

A similar evolution is found in Norway where soda and glass production were being produced during the same period. Around 1755, burning of kelp for potash was an important income for farmers in the regions between Rogaland and Sør-Trøndelag. The smoke from the kelp fires was sometimes so dense that navigation was difficult, causing several conflicts along the coast with other people. Fishers claimed that the smoke and harvesting scared fish and caused low catches; the burning of kelp was even blamed for the famine in Nord-Møre in 1804. The industry ceased in Rogaland in 1780 because of complaints from farmers and fishermen, but continued further north. Around 1800, 1500  tons of potash was exported from Norway to the glass and soap industry in Europe (Meland and Rebours, 2012).

Figure 2.1  Participants gather for a festival to burn algal resources in Brittany, France. Credit: Katia Frangoudes.

In 19th-century France, there was a switch from using seaweed in glass production to the production of iodine. The production of iodine constituted the main use of seaweed until World War II when chemical materials replaced seaweed. Consequently seaweed harvesters and the processing industry needed to find new uses for their products and the extraction of alginate acid emerged as a solution. Though the first extraction of alginate acid began early in some countries, it was not until the end of 1950s that alginate acid production became well established (Arzel, 1998; Mesnildrey et al., 2012).

Animal Feed and Fertilizer

Seaweeds have been used to feed livestock for thousands of years; such uses have even been mentioned in ancient Greek texts and in the Icelandic sagas (Heuzé et al., 2015). In Iceland, where fodder was scarce for long periods, seaweeds were often fed to sheep, horses, and cattle. Seaweeds were dried and stored in barns, and there are reports of seaweeds being preserved as silage and used as winter feedstuff for sheep and cattle in the early 1900s (Evans and Critchley, 2014). In the 19th and early 20th centuries, there were numerous reports of occasional or systematic use of seaweeds to feed livestock in France (Brittany), in the Scottish islands (Lewis), and Scandinavia (Gotland, Norway, Finland), mostly to ruminants (including calves) and pigs (http://www.feedipedia.org/node/19176 Sauvageau, 1920; http://www.feedipedia.org/node/19173 Chapman and Chapman, 1980 in Heuzé et al., 2015). On islands, and other places with limited agriculture, animals grazed seaweed because it was the only solution. Today the Orkney sheep in the North Ronaldsay Islands (Northern Scotland) are still grazing a diet almost exclusively based on seaweeds (http://www.feedipedia.org/node/17899 Heuzé et al., 2015).

In Europe, seaweed was also used to improve nutrient-poor soils, for example, along the French Atlantic coast where seaweeds were gathered after storms. Men gathered the algae at sea with large rakes, even in winter, and women collected it along shorelines. The algae were then spread on dunes, mainly by women and children, to be dried for year-round preservation (Arzel, 1987). Farmers living around the area gathered kelp (Laminaria spp.) to use in their fields (Arzel, 1987; Frangoudes and Garineaud, 2015). A sharp decline of this activity occurred with the advent of chemical fertilizers and the increase of the size of agricultural land. Today, soil improvement using fresh seaweed is rarely practiced, except in small private fields, such as on Batz Island in northern Brittany.

In Norway the first industries processing Ascophyllum nodosum for animal food and for fertilizer were established in 1926 and 1937. The first industry producing seaweed meal from A. nodosum was established in 1937 with nine plants along the coast. These companies were merged later and still process A. nodosum for the production of seaweed extracts and meal for soil conditioner, fertilizer, and feed supplements (Meland and Rebours, 2012).

In Ireland, seaweed was a vital fertilizer that enabled smallholders to produce quantities of subsistence crops beyond the normal capacities of their lands. Commercially-focused algae harvesting in this country commenced in 1947 when the Irish State of Arrama Teomara established two plants in the western part of the country. This industry processed mainly A. nodosum for fertilizers and animal food. It still dominates the Irish algae industry today by production volume; they supply numerous other companies with the raw material for the production of horticultural, cosmetics, and animal welfare products (Walsh, 2010) (Fig. 2.2).

Figure 2.2   Ascophyllum pile to be processed in Ireland. Credit: Katia Frangoudes.

Household Uses

Using seaweeds and other marine plants in industry shows the creativity and ingenuity of humans through experimentation. In some areas of Europe, marine plants were also used in housing construction. The islanders of Læsø, Denmark, used eelgrass (Zostera marina) as roofing material. The unusual choice of this plant for roofing came from the ingenuity that arises from necessity. Local women are credited with the invention, using their skills from working with wool to process the seaweed. Læsø residents also used the eelgrass to stuff furniture (eg, sofas and chairs). In the 1930s a fungal disease wiped out the local stocks. Today, efforts are under way to preserve the remaining historic buildings and to relearn the processing techniques (personal communication, Læsø historian). A seaweed (use of seaweed is a literal translation of the Danish word tang though technically eelgrasses are not algae but a flowering plant) bank was founded in 2007, which is filled with eelgrass from other Danish islands. The bank was founded to always have available enough eelgrass for two roofs (Fig. 2.3). In 2012 the efforts of the group to preserve and maintain these techniques were acknowledged with the winning of the Europa Nostra Prize (Europa Nostra, n.d.) for education, training, and raising awareness of cultural heritage.

Medicine

Over time, in many places in Europe, the use of seaweeds in glass production was replaced by iodine production. For example, in Norway, potash from kelp became an important source for local industry. The first chemical iodide fabric was built in Trondheim in 1870, supplied with potash from Hitra in Sør-Trøndelag. In 1913, 150,000  tons of kelp was cut by hand or collected from the shore, and burned for export of 6000  tons of potash. In 1933 a cheaper raw material for iodine production, chile saltpeter, was found, and the production from kelp ceased (Aasland, 1997; Meland and Rebours, 2012).

Figure 2.3  A farmhouse with the seaweed ( tang in Danish) roof. The house was first built in the 1730s, and expanded over the years. Used as a family home until 1959, it is currently a popular destination as a local museum. Læsø, Denmark. Credit: Paulina Ramirez-Monsalve.

A similar process was found in France where, in 1829, a local chemical engineer developed an industrial process to produce iodine from kelp. About 30 iodine factories were set up in the northern Finistère district where they played an important role within the local economy. The factories employed a great number of kelp harvesters and skilled workers. In 1944 the number of kelp harvesters registered in the national social security system was estimated at between 3000 and 4000. In practice, however, probably 15,000 people were involved in kelp harvesting and seaweed gathering (Muller, 1944). This activity ended in the early 1950s, with the production of iodine from chemicals. Local fishers’ organizations helped kelp harvesters and their families cope with their economic difficulties by distributing subsidies (Frangoudes and Garineaud, 2015).

Human Consumption

As shown earlier, seaweeds have been used in a variety of ways in industry and for farming. Its most common usage, however, comes from human consumption. European historical sources document that in some countries local populations were consuming seaweed far back into history. Palmaria palmata has been used as human food in Norway, for example, since the Viking age. In Ireland, P. palmata, Chondrus crispus, Mastocarpus stallatus, and Porphyra umbricallis were consumed in coastal communities located on the west and north coasts of the country. Seaweed was considered a seasonal food product for household consumption or sold locally seasonally. For this reason, quantities were limited and edible algae did not function as a cash crop because there was little demand for it outside coastal communities. As the following quotation shows (by C.P. Idyll), Irish and Scottish populations were consuming edible seaweed until the middle of the 20th century:

In Great Britain in the middle of the 19th Century sugar wrack and other species were sold in the streets of Edinburgh by vendors crying: buy Dulse and tongles.

Arzel (1987: 31)

In Galway, dulse was sold in the street as recently as 1958. The dulse in this case is a preparation made mainly by P. palmata (Arzel, 1987: 31). In France, human consumption of seaweed was limited to the use of bleached C. crispus to jellify milk and make the traditional black far (custard made with buckwheat) in Brittany (Fig. 2.4).

In Wales, laver (a Porphyra spp.) was traditionally boiled and served with cockles and bacon, or fried with oatmeal to make laverbread (O’Conner, 2013).

Originally, laver was a defining food of the small South Wales coastal communities of fishermen and small farmers, which were transformed by the urban industrialization of the area in the nineteenth century…Labourers streaming into South Wales from elsewhere to work in mines and factories took up the consumption of laver, already established locally, because they appreciated it as both a cheap, nutritious food and also as a kind of prophylactic against the illnesses connected with their employment.

Figure 2.4  Processed dulse, Brittany, France. Credit: Katia Frangoudes.

O’Conner (2013: 18)

In Europe, in general, human consumption is limited to specific coastal populations; this is not the case in East Asia where seaweed consumption was, and remains, extremely high. The following sections highlight the examples of nori (Porphyra spp.; Japan) and miyeog (Undaria pinnatifida; Korea) by showing the importance of these species in the local diet over time (Fig. 2.5).

Japan

Seaweeds in East Asia have been documented to have been harvested for thousands of years, as evidenced by archeological findings in Jomon (6000 BCE–300 BCE) and Yayoi (300 BCE–400 CE) era sites (Nisizawa et al., 1987). Some of the earliest written documentation on seaweed comes from the Taiho Code (701 CE), Japan’s first written legal codex (Miyagi, 1993). This document lists murasaki nori (purple nori) as an item that could be used as an annual tribute tax payment (Miyagi, 1993; Miyashita, 1970) along with seven other types of seaweed and 22 other marine products. Of these, nori was considered one of the best, thus making it a commodity with high cultural value and visibility (O’Conner, 2013: 22) (Fig. 2.6). Though nori production increased through the years, it often remained a luxury item with demand outstripping supply until true cultivation methods were developed in the post-World War II period (Zenkoku, 1998; Delaney, 2003; O’Conner, 2013). Taken altogether, seaweeds are estimated to make up approximately 10% of the Japanese diet (Guiry, 2007).

Figure 2.5  Cutting of seaweed by women.

Figure 2.6  Nori being judged for the Annual Consecration and Competition at the Shiogama Shrine, Miyagi, Japan. The winning nori is sent to the Emperor of Japan. Credit: Alyne Delaney.

Nori

Today, nori (Porphyra spp., eg, Porphyra tenera, Porphyra pseudolinearis, and Porphyra yezoensis) is one of the most ubiquitous of the seaweeds used for human consumption in East Asia. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization, nori is

…among the most nutritious seaweeds, with a protein content of 30–50 percent, and about 75 percent of that is digestible. Sugars are low (0.1 percent), and the vitamin content very high, with significant amounts of Vitamins A, B1, B2, B6, B12, C, niacin and folic acid, but the shelf life of vitamin C can be short in the dried product.

McHugh and Dennis (2003: 74)

Though seaweeds, such as nori, have been used by humans for millennia, for most of history their use and consumption was limited because of processing and harvesting size, making them, at times, prestige or luxury items, especially since, until the late 1950s and early 1960s, nori was gathered by hand. It’s been said it wasn’t unusual to hear about Japanese who had never eaten nori before World War Two (Zenkoku, 1998: 23). Indeed, as one nori cultivator’s wife pointed out to a researcher, I rarely had nori until I married [and moved to Shichigahama]. Because we lived far from the sea, [my family] always had onigiri (rice balls) wrapped in shiso (beefsteak plant) leaves (Delaney, 2003: 170) (Fig. 2.7).

Figure 2.7  A display of nori products in a local post office, Miyagi, Japan, 2014. Credit: Alyne Delaney.

Throughout the world today, nori is best known as a wrapper for sushi, but it can also be used in soups and salads, just like other species such as kombu (Laminaria japonica), wakame (U. pinnatifida), and hijiki (Sargassum fusiforme). Nori (Porphyra spp.) is also fried as a snack with beer.

Korea

In Korea, a variety of edible different species of algae, dasima (L. japonica), miyeok (U. pinnatifida), umudggasari (Gelidium amansii), gamtae (Eckonia cava), and gim (Porphyra spp.) are utilized. U. pinnatifida (miyeok in Korean; wakame in Japanese) is the most popular species in this country and can be found in wild and in cultivated forms. Wild sea mustard harvesting is call Miyokddol or Gwagam in Korean and harvesting was—and is still—done by diving (Ii, 2012). The dry Porphyra spp. (gim in Korean; nori in Japanese) is eaten as a side dish approximately every day in Korea. Porphyra spp. is eaten only in Korea and Japan.

Traditionally, seaweed was a delicacy consumed by all social classes in Korea, as evidenced by various historical sources describing the consumption and harvesting of seaweed. According to the Goryeo Dogyeong, a document written by Su Jing, a diplomat of the Chinese Song Dynasty, about the culture of the Goryeo Dynasty period (AD 918–1392) the king and nobles ate lamb, mutton, and pork while the poor population ate fish and other marine products. But abalones, oysters, and seaweed were consumed by all social classes.

In addition to the gastronomic qualities of seaweed, in Korea seaweed has also cultural importance. Korean customs give symbolic significance to seaweed (Fig. 2.8). For example, dry sea mustard (U. pinnatifida) is prepared for the goddess of childbirth and for a parturient woman (Ii, 1999). Dried seaweed is offered to the goddess with rice, water, and a thread for 4  weeks and people pray for the longevity of the baby and the health of the mother every day. Korean mothers also consume sea mustard (wakame; miyeok) soup for 4  weeks after childbirth; it is believed that sea mustard improves mothers’ milk because it contains a lot of calcium and iodine, which are necessary for the mother’s body (Ii, 1999).

Figure 2.8  Steamed rice with red beans and miyeok soup to eat on a birthday.

Contemporary Culture and Consumption

Many algal species continue to be exploited and used for human consumption today. In the Atlantic coastal region, and particularly in France and Ireland, there are small and medium enterprises using edible wild seaweeds in production. These new types of industry have developed in recent years because of demand from European consumers (Mesnildrey et al., 2012; Walsh, 2010).

In Ireland, edible seaweeds are currently harvested, processed, and packaged by several small-scale enterprises for sale as health foods. Though there has been growing public interest in seaweed products, the total national harvest of all these species combined is still less than 100  tons per annum. In France, fresh seaweeds harvested in Brittany are consumed under the name vegetable of the sea. Seaweeds are sold in different forms such as raw products (dry or salty), condiments, and as spreads (mashed algae). These products, which qualify as French-type products, are primarily sold in organic or health shops, but can also be found in delicatessens (Fig. 2.9). Other types of algae, such as nori or wakame, are also used in the preparation of Asian cuisine, such as sushi. These products, however, can only be found in large, chain supermarkets (Le Bras et al., 2015). Currently, there is a push to increase the use of laver in Welsh cuisine. One producer, building on the fact that Welsh seaweed is wild harvested in waters known for their purity, is exporting laver (nori) for the Japanese luxury connoisseur trade (O’Conner, 2013).

Figure 2.9  Processed, boutique algae, France. Credit: Katia Frangoudes.

Until the late 1970s, most Japanese nori was prepared by families and consumed in households (Zenkoku, 1998). Coastal residents, able to obtain fresh nori (or iwanori), consumed it in the forms of nori salads and in soups in addition to more processed forms, such as sheets of nori. Nori harvesting families also make beer (tsumami) and other snacks from nori (Delaney, 2003). The most common usage of processed nori is seen in the forms of sushi and onigiri (rice balls). Temakizushi, sushi made by hand at home, is a popular small-gathering, party food. Onigiri are the Japanese’s answer to the sandwich—common at outdoor events such as picnics, field day events, and lunches.

Nori was also an important item in annual gift giving at the middle and end of the year.

Department stores, both up-market establishments like Takashimaya and Mitsukoshi and mid-market chains like Seibu, compete vigorously for oseibo customers, and all the major Japanese nori producers have extensive ranges of gift-packaged nori in all its forms—sheets, strips, powered, shredded and paste—for presentation. This reinforces nori’s cultural value and visibility in Japan….

O’Conner (2013)

Japan also celebrates a Nori Day (Delaney, 2003) on February 6 of each year. Despite its continued popularity, cultivators and fisheries cooperative association members have noted a change in consumer patterns for nori. "In the past, 50% of nori went as gifts (O-Seibo, Chuugen¹); now 80% goes to large amount sellers (ryouhanten)" who form it into foods such as onigiri, which sell for a low price (Delaney, 2003: 171). Cultivators often complained to one resident fieldworker that nori was the same price in 2001 as it was in 1972, a result of its inclusion in processed foods. Nevertheless, nori remains a key item of exchange in Japanese culture through formal gift-giving practices (Delaney, 2003).

New Industrial Uses of Seaweed

Industrial use of seaweed started after 1945 with the production of hydrocolloids: alginate, agar–agar, and carrageenan. In Europe the seaweed processing industry, which buys fresh seaweed, is divided into two categories: those producing alginate acid and those producing kelp meal for animal food and agriculture. The development of alginate acid extraction contributed to the intensification of seaweed harvesting. Alginates are polysaccharides that are extracted from brown algae. They are of commercial importance because they have very good gelling properties and also biological properties, such as being natural, biocompatible, biodegradable, bioadhesive, and nonimmunogenic. They are used in the food industry as thickening and gelling agents in, for example, ice cream and desserts. They are commonly used in the pharmaceutical industry in gastric alkalis, binding agents for tablets, wound dressings, and dental impressions. They also have industrial applications in the production of textiles, electrodes, and in water processing as well as many other applications (Mesnildrey et al., 2012).

The production of alginate and the production of meal for agriculture require vast quantities of raw seaweed. Seaweed cannot successfully be transported to other regions by road because of the high number of trucks required to move the vast volume of wet material. The high cost of transportation explains the establishment of the two main companies and other smaller companies in north Finistère, near to where the most important kelp (Laminaria digitata and Laminaria hyperborea) forest is located. In Norway, where the geographical area for L. hyperborea harvesting is larger than that in France, the processing company uses boats for transport to the sole operating plant. In Ireland the plant processing A. nodosum is located in the west coast of the country where the seaweed is located. Other small companies are located in the same area. In Norway the main company that is exploiting and processing A. nodosum for seaweed meal and for animal food, fertilizer, food, and cosmetic products is also based on the coast near the harvesting areas. All European seaweed processing plants are subsidiaries of multinational companies, which often change ownership.

In southern Europe (Spain and Portugal) the processing industry produces agar–agar because local seaweeds are ideal for this product. A Japanese company first promoted this activity in the early 1950s. In the Spanish Basque country the last processing plants producing agar–agar closed in 2000 because of regional conservation measures. In Asturias, where seaweed harvesting is still practiced, limited processing industries producing agar–agar remain. In Galicia (Spain), seaweed harvesting is still important and the number of processing industries is higher than in the two previous regions (Gallastegi, 2010). Portugal also produces agar–agar and is the fifth highest producer in the world (Marques, 2010).

Overall the number of seaweed processing plants in Europe is decreasing. In some areas this is caused by a decline in seaweed stocks; in others, seaweed harvesting is forbidden because of conservation reasons, as seen in the Basque country or in Ireland. In the latter country, for example, environmental protection interests have halted the expansion of mechanical harvesting (Kelly, 2005).

Currently, European wild seaweed stock processing is unable to meet the high demand for alginates and other products dependent on seaweed. The processing industry, which has access to the raw material locally (eg, France, Norway, and Ireland), also imports dried seaweed when local supplies are out of season. For example, the two main companies based in northern Finistère import seaweed from third countries to supplement the local production, particularly during closed harvesting seasons. When local supplies dry up completely there have been instances of processors moving to third countries, where they can access cheap raw materials (eg, Chile, the Philippines, and China).

Harvesting

For most of history, seaweeds, such as nori in Japan and Korea, were hand gathered from naturally occurring plants, often on rocks in the tidal zone, or in the shallow, near-shore areas. These seaweeds are often called wild or natural interchangeably, and to differentiate them from seaweeds that are now farmed (also known as cultivated).

Wild Harvesting Techniques

Two main techniques of wild seaweed harvesting can be found around the world: mechanical and manual either on foot (by hand, on shore/in shallows) or by diving. In Europe, mechanical harvesting takes place on boats and is mainly found in Norway, Brittany, Galicia, and to a lesser degree in the Basque country and Ireland.

The mechanization of seaweed harvesting began at the same time in France and Norway, beginning in the early 1970s. The evolution and success of mechanization in both these countries helped them compare and evaluate their respective practices. In Norway, L. hyperborea and A. nodosum are harvested by boat using specific equipment. In France, L. digitata and more recently L. hyperborea are harvested by boat. The largest boat can harvest up to 70  tons daily (Fig. 2.10).

The development of mechanical harvesting in both countries is linked to the development of the processing industry for the extraction of alginate (L. digitata and L. hyperborea) and for meal production (A. nodosum). The