Coastal Ocean Observing Systems

Coastal Ocean Observing Systems provides state-of-the-art scientific and technological knowledge in coastal ocean observing systems, along with guidance on establishing, restructuring, and improving similar systems. The book is intended to help oceanographers understand, identify, and recognize how oceanographic research feeds into the various designs of ocean observing systems. In addition, readers will learn how ocean observing systems are defined and how each system operates in relation to its geographical, environmental, and political region.

The book provides further insights into all of these problem areas, offering lessons learned and results from the types of research sponsored and utilized by ocean observing systems and the types of research design and experiments conducted by professionals specializing in ocean research and affiliated with observing systems.

• Includes international contributions from individuals working in academia, management, and industry
• Showcases the application of science and technology in coastal observing systems
• Highlights lessons learned on partnerships, governance structure, data management, and stakeholder relationships required for successful implementation
• Provides insight into how ocean research transfers to application and societal benefit

• Language: English
• Publisher: Academic Press
• Release date: Jun 1, 2015
• ISBN: 9780128020616

Book preview

Coastal Ocean Observing Systems

Editors

Yonggang Liu

College of Marine Science, University of South Florida, St. Petersburg, FL, USA

Heather Kerkering

Pacific Islands Ocean Observing System, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, HI, USA

Sea Connections Consulting, Virginia, USA

Dr. Robert H. Weisberg

College of Marine Science, University of South Florida, St. Petersburg, FL, USA

Table of Contents

Cover image

Title page

Copyright

Contributors

Preface

Acknowledgment

Chapter 1. Introduction to Coastal Ocean Observing Systems

1. Introduction

2. Coastal Ocean Observing Systems Development

3. Science and Technology Advancement

4. Societal Benefits

5. Concluding Remarks

Chapter 2. National Ocean Observing Systems in a Global Context

1. Why Do We Need Ocean Observing?

2. Answering the Call—National and Global Ocean Observing Infrastructures

3. Ocean Observing Technologies

4. Access to the Data

5. Modeling and Analysis

6. Education and Outreach

7. Summary

Chapter 3. The Importance of Federal and Regional Partnerships in Coastal Observing

1. Introduction

2. Why a Partnership Approach to Coastal Ocean Observing?

3. The IOOS Approach

4. Building Partnerships Through Data Accessibility

5. Private Sector Partnerships

6. Case Studies

7. Conclusion

Chapter 4. Basic Tenets for Coastal Ocean Ecosystems Monitoring

1. Introduction

2. The Tenets

3. Recent Application Examples

4. Experimental Design

5. Summary and Recommendations

Chapter 5. The Monitoring of Harmful Algal Blooms through Ocean Observing: The Development of the California Harmful Algal Bloom Monitoring and Alert Program

1. Introduction and Background

2. The CalHABMAP Network

3. Development of an HAB Forecasting Capability

4. Toxin and Species Methods Intercomparison

5. Economic Analysis

6. Summary and Recommendations

Chapter 6. Sustained Ocean Observing along the Coast of Southeastern Australia: NSW-IMOS 2007–2014

1. Introduction

2. NSW-IMOS in the National Context

3. The NSW-IMOS Infrastructure—Design of the Array

4. Assessing the Design of the Shelf Mooring Array

5. Shortcomings and Recommendations for the Future

6. Conclusions

Chapter 7. Projeto Azul: Operational Oceanography in an Active Oil and Gas Area Southeastern Brazil

1. Introduction

2. Santos Basin Ocean Dynamics

3. Observations and Database

4. Results

5. Hydrodynamic Modeling and Data Assimilation

6. Final Remarks and Future Steps

Chapter 8. Zooplankton Data from High-Frequency Coastal Transects: Enriching the Contributions of Ocean Observing Systems to Ecosystem-Based Management in the Northern California Current

1. Introduction

2. High-Frequency Coastal Transects

3. What Can Zooplankton Data Tell Us about the NCC?

4. Zooplankton-Based Ecosystem Indicators

5. Discussion

Chapter 9. The IMOS Ocean Radar Facility, ACORN

1. Introduction

2. ACORN

3. Current Measurements, Accuracy, and Applications

4. Wave and Wind Measurements, Accuracy, and Applications

5. Prospects for Further Development

Chapter 10. How High-Resolution Wave Observations and HF Radar–Derived Surface Currents are Critical to Decision-Making for Maritime Operations

1. Introduction

2. Wave and Surface Current Measurement Program Overview and Supporting Information

3. Case Studies

4. Summary

Chapter 11. Observing Frontal Instabilities of the Florida Current Using High Frequency Radar

1. Introduction

2. Background: The Florida Current

3. Instrumentation and Experimental Design

4. Cyclonic Shear-Zone Instability

5. Anticyclonic Shear-Zone Instability

6. Summary

Chapter 12. Fine-Scale Tidal and Subtidal Variability of an Upwelling-Influenced Bay as Measured by the Mexican High Frequency Radar Observing System

1. Introduction

2. Results

3. Discussion and Conclusions

Chapter 13. Effect of Radio Frequency Interference (RFI) Noise Energy on WERA Performance Using the Listen Before Talk Adaptive Noise Procedure on the West Florida Shelf

1. Introduction

2. Background

3. System Operational Characteristics and Problem Definition

4. Quantifying the Variations in the Local Noise Field Present

5. Summary

Chapter 14. Ocean Remote Sensing Using X-Band Shipborne Nautical Radar—Applications in Eastern Canada

1. Introduction

2. Wave Algorithms

3. Wind Algorithms

4. Experimental Results

5. Conclusion

Chapter 15. Estimating Nearshore Bathymetry from X-Band Radar Data

1. Introduction: The Radar Imaging of Sea Waves

2. Sea Surface Current and Bathymetry Reconstruction from Radar Data

3. Inversion Procedures

4. Estimation Results on Real-World Data

5. Conclusions

Chapter 16. Wind, Wave, and Current Retrieval Utilizing X-Band Marine Radars

1. Introduction

2. Wind Measurements

3. Wave and Current Measurements

4. Summary

Chapter 17. Glider Salinity Correction for Unpumped CTD Sensors across a Sharp Thermocline

1. Introduction

2. A Sharp Thermocline

3. Methods

4. Thermal Lag Correction Results

5. Summary and Discussions

Chapter 18. New Sensors for Ocean Observing: The Optical Phytoplankton Discriminator

1. Introduction

2. History of the OPD

3. Methodology

4. Systems Level Integration

5. Applications

6. Validation and Results

7. Future Development/Plans

Chapter 19. Observing System Impacts on Estimates of California Current Transport

1. Introduction

2. Historical Analyses of the California Current System

3. Quantifying the Impact of the Observations on Ocean Circulation Analyses

4. Control Vector Impacts on Alongshore Transport

5. Observation Impacts on Alongshore Transport

6. Summary and Conclusions

Chapter 20. Assimilation of HF Radar Observations in the Chesapeake–Delaware Bay Region Using the Navy Coastal Ocean Model (NCOM) and the Four-Dimensional Variational (4DVAR) Method

1. Introduction

2. HF Radar Observations

3. The Model

4. The Assimilation System

5. Experiments and Results

6. Validation

7. Conclusion

Chapter 21. System-Wide Monitoring Program of the National Estuarine Research Reserve System: Research and Monitoring to Address Coastal Management Issues

1. Introduction to the NERRS

2. Introduction to the NERRS System-Wide Monitoring Program

3. Abiotic SWMP Components

4. Biologic SWMP Components

5. Habitat Mapping and Change Analysis

6. Sentinel Sites Program for Evaluating Climate Change Impacts

7. NERRS SWMP Data Management

8. Conditions Across the NERRS

9. Data Applications: Water Quality Assessment, Public Health

10. Data Applications: Storm Surge

11. Data Applications: Education

12. Summary, Conclusions, and Challenges

Chapter 22. Integrating Environmental Monitoring and Observing Systems in Support of Science to Inform Decision-Making: Case Studies for the Southeast

1. Introduction

2. Role of Monitoring and Observing Systems in the Southeast

3. The Role of Data Management to Support Collaboration and Integration

4. Case Studies

5. Conclusions

Chapter 23. One System, Many Societal Benefits: Building an Efficient, Cost-Effective Ocean Observing System for the Gulf of Mexico

1. Origin of the GCOOS System of Systems Construct

2. The Gulf of Mexico: National Treasure and Economic Driver

3. A Comprehensive Blueprint for Monitoring in the Gulf of Mexico

4. Challenges Quantifying the Return on Investment of a Gulf Observing System

5. Myriad Gulf Issues, One Comprehensive System

6. Summary

Index

Copyright

Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier

32 Jamestown Road, London NW1 7BY, UK

525 B Street, Suite 1800, San Diego, CA 92101-4495, USA

225 Wyman Street, Waltham, MA 02451, USA

The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, UK

Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Except as follows:

Chapter 2 and 8 authors are US Government employees. Hence, the chapter is in public domain.

No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Details on how to seek permission, further information about the Publisher’s permissions policies and our arrangements with organizations such as the Copyright Clearance Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website: www.elsevier.com/permissions.

This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher (other than as may be noted herein).

Notices

Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary.

Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.

To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.

ISBN: 978-0-12-802022-7

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress

For Information on all Academic Press publications visit our website at http://store.elsevier.com

Cover design provided by Amanda Toperoff of Big Blue Nowhere (www.bigbluenowhere.com).

Contributors

Eric J. Anderson,     Great Lake Environmental Research Laboratory, Ann Arbor, MI, USA

Matthew R. Archer,     Department of Ocean Sciences, Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, University of Miami, FL, USA

Luiz Paulo de Freitas Assad,     Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

Becky Baltes,     U.S. IOOS Program Office, NOAA, Silver Spring, MD, USA

Cecília Bergman,     PROOCEANO Serviço Oceanográfico, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

Aric Bickel,     Central and Northern California Ocean Observing System, Moss Landing, CA, USA

Eric P. Bjorkstedt,     NOAA Fisheries, Southwest Fisheries Science Center, Santa Cruz, CA, USA

Ana Carolina Boechat,     PROOCEANO Serviço Oceanográfico, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

Jose Carlos Nieto Borge,     Universidad de Alcalá, Spain

Marie Bundy,     Office for Coastal Management/NOS/NOAA, Silver Spring, MD, USA

Edward J. Buskey,     Marine Science Institute, University of Texas, Port Aransas, TX, USA

Marcelo Montenegro Cabral,     PROOCEANO Serviço Oceanográfico, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

Russell Callender,     National Ocean Service, NOAA, Silver Spring, MD, USA

Ruben Carrasco,     Institute of Coastal Research, Helmhotlz-Zentrum Geesthacht, Germany

Eugenio Pugliese Carratelli

Maritime Engineering Division University of Salerno (MEDUS), University of Salerno, Fisciano, Italy

CUGRI—University Centre for Research on Major Hazard, Fisciano, Italy

Matthew Carrier,     Naval Research Laboratory, Stennis Space Center, Mississippi, USA

Melissa L. Carter,     Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California, San Diego, CA, USA

Gabriel Vieira de Carvalho,     PROOCEANO Serviço Oceanográfico, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

Rubén Castro,     Facultad de Ciencias Marinas, Universidad Autónoma de Baja California, Ensenada, Baja California, México

Jeremy Cothran,     Arnold School of Public Health and the Baruch Institute for Marine and Coastal Sciences, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC, USA

Leonardo Maturo Marques da Cruz,     PROOCEANO Serviço Oceanográfico, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

Fabio Dentale,     Maritime Engineering Division University of Salerno (MEDUS), University of Salerno, Fisciano, Italy

L. Kellie Dixon,     Mote Marine Laboratory, Sarasota, FL, USA

Feliciano Dominguez,     Instituto de Investigaciones Oceanológicas, Universidad Autónoma de Baja California, Ensenada, Baja California, México

Jennifer Dorton,     Center for Marine Science, University of North Carolina–Wilmington, Wilmington, NC, USA

Reginaldo Durazo,     Facultad de Ciencias Marinas, Universidad Autónoma de Baja California, Ensenada, Baja California, México

Christopher A. Edwards,     Department of Ocean Sciences, University of California Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA, USA

Todd Fake,     University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, USA

Matthew C. Ferner,     San Francisco Bay NERR, San Francisco State University, Tiburon, CA, USA

Jerome Fiechter,     Department of Ocean Sciences, University of California Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA, USA

Xavier Flores-Vidal,     Instituto de Investigaciones Oceanológicas, Universidad Autónoma de Baja California, Ensenada, Baja California, México

Maurício da Rocha Fragoso,     PROOCEANO Serviço Oceanográfico, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

Charlton Galvarino,     Second Creek Consulting, Columbia, SC, USA

Henery Ferreira Garção,     PROOCEANO Serviço Oceanográfico, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

Eduardo Gil,     Instituto de Investigaciones Oceanológicas, Universidad Autónoma de Baja California, Ensenada, Baja California, México

Eric W. Gill,     Faculty of Engineering and Applied Science, Memorial University, NL, Canada

Klaus-Werner Gurgel,     Institute of Oceanography, University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany

Jack Harlan,     NOAA/U.S. Integrated Ocean Observing System, Silver Spring, MD, USA

Lisa Hazard,     Scripps Institution of Oceanography, La Jolla, CA, USA

Debra Hernandez,     Southeast Coastal Ocean Observing Regional Association, Charleston, SC, USA

Jochen Horstmann,     Institute of Coastal Research, Helmhotlz-Zentrum Geesthacht, Germany

Matthew K. Howard,     Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA

Meredith D.A. Howard,     Southern California Coastal Water Research Project, Costa Mesa, CA, USA

Weimin Huang,     Faculty of Engineering and Applied Science, Memorial University, NL, Canada

Michael G. Jacox,     Department of Ocean Sciences, University of California Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA, USA

Benjamin Jaimes,     Department of Ocean Sciences, Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, University of Miami, FL, USA

Robert E. Jensen,     US Army Corps of Engineers, Environmental Research and Development Center, Washington, DC, USA

Ann E. Jochens,     Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA

Adrian Jones,     University of Maryland Center for Environmental Science, Cambridge, MD, USA

Carolyn Keen,     Scripps Institution of Oceanography, La Jolla, CA, USA

Heath Kelsey,     University of Maryland Center for Environmental Science, Cambridge, MD, USA

Heather Kerkering

Pacific Islands Ocean Observing System, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, HI, USA

Sea Connections Consulting, Virginia, USA

Barbara Kirkpatrick

Gulf of Mexico Coastal Ocean Observing System, College Station, TX, USA

Mote Marine Laboratory, Sarasota, FL, USA

Gary J. Kirkpatrick,     Mote Marine Laboratory, Sarasota, FL, USA

Shinichi Kobara,     Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA

Josh Kohut,     Mid-Atlantic Regional Association Coastal Ocean Observing System and Rutgers University, Newport, NJ, USA

Raphael M. Kudela,     Ocean Sciences Department, Institute for Marine Sciences, University of California, Santa Cruz, CA, USA

Luiz Landau,     Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

Chad Lembke,     College of Marine Science, University of South Florida, St. Petersburg, FL, USA

Lynn Leonard,     Department of Geography and Geology, University of North Carolina–Wilmington, Wilmington, NC, USA

Yonggang Liu,     College of Marine Science, University of South Florida, St. Petersburg, FL, USA

Giovanni Ludeno

Institute for Electromagnetic Sensing of the Environment (IREA), Italian National Research Council (CNR), Napoli, Italy

Department of the Industrial and Information Engineering, Second University of Naples, Aversa, Italy

Rick Luettich,     University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, USA

Bjoern Lund,     Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL, USA

John Manderson,     National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA, Silver Spring, MD, USA

Lívia Sant'Angelo Mariano,     PROOCEANO Serviço Oceanográfico, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

Jorge Martinez-Pedraja,     Department of Ocean Sciences, Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, University of Miami, FL, USA

Molly McCammon,     Alaska Ocean Observing System, Anchorage, AK, USA

Clifford R. Merz,     College of Marine Science, University of South Florida, St. Petersburg, FL, USA

Tiago Cardoso de Miranda,     PROOCEANO Serviço Oceanográfico, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

Andrew M. Moore,     Department of Ocean Sciences, University of California Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA, USA

Philip Muscarella,     Naval Research Laboratory, Stennis Space Center, Mississippi, USA

Antonio Natale,     Institute for Electromagnetic Sensing of the Environment (IREA), Italian National Research Council (CNR), Napoli, Italy

Luis F. Navarro,     Instituto de Investigaciones Oceanológicas, Universidad Autónoma de Baja California, Ensenada, Baja California, México

Hans Ngodock,     Naval Research Laboratory, Stennis Space Center, Mississippi, USA

André Luis Santi Coimbra de Oliveira,     PROOCEANO Serviço Oceanográfico, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

Mark Otero,     Scripps Institution of Oceanography, La Jolla, CA, USA

Júlio Augusto de Castro Pellegrini,     PROOCEANO Serviço Oceanográfico, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

Leif Petersen,     Helzel Messtechnik GmbH, Kaltenkirchen, Germany

William T. Peterson,     NOAA Fisheries, Northwest Fisheries Science Center, Seattle, WA, USA

Flávia Pozzi Pimentel,     PROOCEANO Serviço Oceanográfico, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

Dwayne E. Porter,     Arnold School of Public Health and the Baruch Institute for Marine and Coastal Sciences, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC, USA

Josie Quintrell,     IOOS Association, Harpswell, ME, USA

Dan Ramage,     Arnold School of Public Health and the Baruch Institute for Marine and Coastal Sciences, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC, USA

Jennifer Read

University of Michigan Water Center, Ann Arbor, MI, USA

Great Lakes Observing System, Ann Arbor, MI, USA

Ferdinando Reale,     Maritime Engineering Division University of Salerno (MEDUS), University of Salerno, Fisciano, Italy

William G. Reay,     Virginia Institute of Marine Science, Gloucester Point, VA, USA

Frederico Luna Rinaldi,     PROOCEANO Serviço Oceanográfico, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

Leslie Rosenfeld,     Central and Northern California Ocean Observing System, Moss Landing, CA, USA

Moninya Roughan,     Coastal and Regional Oceanography Lab, School of Mathematics and Statistics, UNSW Australia, UNSW, Sydney, NSW, Australia

Francisco Alves dos Santos,     PROOCEANO Serviço Oceanográfico, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

Natalia Gomes dos Santos,     PROOCEANO Serviço Oceanográfico, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

Amandine Schaeffer,     Coastal and Regional Oceanography Lab, School of Mathematics and Statistics, UNSW Australia, UNSW, Sydney, NSW, Australia

Oscar M. Schofield,     Institute of Marine and Coastal Sciences, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ, USA

David J. Schwab,     University of Michigan Water Center, Ann Arbor, MI, USA

Jorg Seemann,     Institute of Coastal Research, Helmhotlz-Zentrum Geesthacht, Germany

Francesco Serafino,     Institute for Electromagnetic Sensing of the Environment (IREA), Italian National Research Council (CNR), Napoli, Italy

Justin Shapiro,     Mote Marine Laboratory, Sarasota, FL, USA

Lynn K. Shay,     Department of Ocean Sciences, Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, University of Miami, FL, USA

Christina Simoniello,     Texas A&M University, Based at University of South Florida, College of Marine Science, St. Petersburg, FL, USA

Erik Smith

North Inlet Winyah Bay NERR, Georgetown, SC, USA

The Baruch Institute for Marine and Coastal Sciences, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC, USA

Scott Smith,     Naval Research Laboratory, Stennis Space Center, Mississippi, USA

Felipe Lobo Mendes Soares,     PROOCEANO Serviço Oceanográfico, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

Innocent Souopgui,     Department of Marine Science, University of Southern Mississippi, Stennis Space Center, Mississippi, USA

Michael Spranger,     University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA

Richard P. Stumpf,     National Centers for Coastal Ocean Science, NOAA, Silver Spring, MD, USA

Vembu Subramanian,     Southeast Coastal Ocean Observing Regional Association, Charleston, SC, USA

Iain M. Suthers,     School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Sciences, UNSW Australia, Sydney, NSW, Australia

Eric Terrill,     Scripps Institution of Oceanography, La Jolla, CA, USA

Julie Thomas,     Scripps Institution of Oceanography, La Jolla, CA, USA

Pedro Marques São Tiago,     PROOCEANO Serviço Oceanográfico, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

Michelle Tomlinson,     University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, USA

Dwight Trueblood,     Office for Coastal Management/NOS/NOAA, University of New Hampshire, Durham, NH, USA

Stephanie Watson,     Gulf of Mexico Coastal Ocean Observing System Consultant, Based at Stennis, MS, USA

Robert H. Weisberg,     College of Marine Science, University of South Florida, St. Petersburg, FL, USA

Zdenka Willis,     U.S. Integrated Ocean Observing System Office, Silver Spring, MD, USA

Lucy R. Wyatt

ACORN, College of Science, Technology and Engineering, Centre for Tropical Water and Aquatic Ecosystem Research, James Cook University, Townsville, QLD, Australia

School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK

Lianyuan Zheng,     College of Marine Science, University of South Florida, St. Petersburg, FL, USA

Preface

Whether far or near, the ocean plays a role in everyone's life. The ocean drives weather and climate patterns across the globe, hosts an abundance of wildlife that support fishing industries and provide food for the world, serves as a highway for vessels that deliver everyday materials, and supports economies as a tourism destination. A healthy relationship with the oceans requires that we understand it. One way to understand it is through observing.

In 2004, the Pew Ocean Commission and the U.S. Ocean Commission released reports that stressed the need for expanding coastal ocean observing capabilities and improving collaborations among entities collecting ocean information. The recommendation mirrored similar initiatives in other countries, as well as set the stage for other countries to follow suit. In response to these recommendations, there are now regional, national, and global ocean observing systems designed to provide critical coastal and ocean information for decision-making. Coastal Ocean Observing Systems: Advances and Syntheses highlights the system development, scientific discoveries, technology advancements, societal benefits, and partnerships made over the last decade of growth and international support of coastal ocean observing entities.

The contents of this book were originally derived from the 2014 Ocean Sciences Meeting Session #009 entitled, Scientific and Societal Benefits from Integrated Coastal Ocean Observations and Networked Marine Laboratories. The session included 24 presentations from different academic institutions, private sectors, government agencies, and observing programs. The presentations covered various aspects of the development and value of coastal ocean observing systems and provided a state-of-the-art overview of the science and technology in this field. Some of the book chapters are contributed by the participants and are based on their presentation topics and developments since. Other invited chapters cover lessons learned in building effective coastal observing systems and new technologies; improving, analyzing, and sharing acquired data; applying observed data to advance the science of coastal oceanography; creating interagency and interinstitutional partnerships at regional and international scales; and in developing decision-making products that greatly impact our economy, society, and environment.

The book includes worldwide examples of advancement in coastal observing systems. It features a collection from international academics, managements, and industries on the latest developments in several emerging issues of coastal ocean observing systems, with a focus on reporting scientific and technological knowledge gained and the resulting societal benefits.

The audience for this book may be as diverse as the individuals involved in moving a coastal ocean observing system from an idea to an operational, beneficial entity. Government and academic leaders, scientists, oceanographers, and ocean engineers will find value in the coastal ocean observing system developments, scientific syntheses, and technology advancements. Resource managers, students, state and federal agencies, and legislators, for example, will also find value in learning more about the societal benefits and users of coastal ocean observing systems and data. The chapters that highlight lessons learned on partnerships, governance, structure, data management, and stakeholder relationships may act as guidance to parties interested in establishing, restructuring, or improving similar systems. Additional readers may include the media and general public interested in marine science, ocean observing, and the coastal environment.

Yonggang Liu, Heather Kerkering,  and Robert H. Weisberg

Editors

Acknowledgment

The editors would like to extend their sincere thanks to Drs Robert A. Weller (Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, USA), Stefano Vignudelli (Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Area Ricerca CNR, Italy), Shuqun Cai (South China Sea Institute of Oceanography, Chinese Academy of Science, China), and Thomas Helzel (HELZEL Messtechnik GmbH, Germany) for their kind encouragement, constructive comments, and helpful suggestions during the early stage of the book development. The editors also gratefully thank all the authors for contributing their excellent work to this collection and for their cooperation during the peer-review and revision processes.

Each chapter in the book was peer-reviewed to Elsevier standards by two or more anonymous reviewers, selected by the editors in terms of experiences and knowledge of the topic. The editors sincerely thank the 45 reviewers for their valuable volunteer work and insightful comments that helped improve the quality of the book. The following is a list of those anonymous reviewers who agreed to be acknowledged here:

Chapter 1

Introduction to Coastal Ocean Observing Systems

Yonggang Liu¹,∗, Heather Kerkering²,³,  and Robert H. Weisberg¹     ¹College of Marine Science, University of South Florida, St. Petersburg, FL, USA     ²Sea Connections Consulting, Virginia, USA     ³Pacific Islands Ocean Observing System, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, HI, USA

∗ Corresponding author: E-mail: [e-mail] 

Abstract

Coastal ocean observing systems (COOS) play a vital role in advancing our understanding of continental shelf and estuarine oceanographic conditions worldwide and in providing essential information to complex coastal ocean stewardship issues. This introduction highlights some of the technological, scientific, organizational, and societal advances of COOS since its inception over a decade ago. The selected chapters contributed by COOS participants around the world provide examples of scientific synthesis and applications of acquired data using state-of-the-art coastal ocean observing and modeling technologies, and of the partnerships, governance structure, data management, and stakeholder relationships required for growth and contribution to topics such as maritime safety, water quality, coastal hazards, fisheries, ecosystems, and climate.

Keywords

Coastal ocean observing system; Integrated ocean observing systems; Observing technology; Scientific syntheses; Societal benefits

Chapter Outline

1. Introduction 1

2. Coastal Ocean Observing Systems Development 3

3. Science and Technology Advancement 4

3.1 HF Radar Applications 4

3.2 Glider Applications 6

3.3 Data Assimilation Experiments 6

4. Societal Benefits 7

5. Concluding Remarks 8

Acknowledgments 8

References 8

1. Introduction

The ocean plays a role in everyone's life. The ocean affects weather and climate patterns around the globe, hosts an abundance of wildlife that support fishing industries and provide food for the world, serves as a highway for vessels that deliver everyday materials, and supports economies as a tourism destination. The coastal ocean is the part of the earth system where land, water, air, and people meet together. Populations, businesses, and infrastructure are increasing along coastlines, which are all susceptible to changing coastal ocean conditions. Now, more than ever, there is a need for regional to global observing systems that can provide accurate real-time data and forecasts on coastal ocean conditions.

Coastal ocean observing systems (COOS) are necessary for advancing our understanding on the state of the coastal ocean worldwide and its impact on matters of societal importance. These systems integrate a network of people, organizations, technologies, and data to share advances, improve research capabilities, and provide decision-makers with access to information and scientific interpretations. Data, observations, and models integrated into the COOS come from a variety of platforms, including, for example, moorings, high-frequency (HF) radars, underwater gliders and profilers, satellites, and ships. The resulting data are used to better understand, respond to, and prepare for short-term events such as oil spills, harmful algal blooms, and fish kills, longer term changes in our oceans resulting in acidification, hypoxia, and sea level rise, and in everyday decisions related to maritime operations, public health, and management of healthy ecosystems.

COOS advances have benefited from an evolving set of ocean observing efforts. In the United States, for example, the concept of the U.S. Integrated Ocean Observing System (IOOS®) was developed through the establishment of Ocean.US under the auspices of the National Oceanographic Partnership Program (NOPP) to help coordinate emerging activities.¹–³ The envisioned concept was a coordinated national and international network of observations, data management, and analyses that systematically acquired and disseminated data and information on past, present, and future states of the oceans.⁴,⁵ Its coastal component was designed to assess and predict the effects of weather, climate, and human activities on the state of the coastal ocean, its ecosystems and living resources, and on the nation's economy.⁶ In 2003 and 2004, the Pew Oceans Commission and the U.S. Commission on Ocean Policy, respectively, released reports⁷,⁸ that further identified the need for a national integrated ocean observing system. The Bush Administration responded with the U.S. Ocean Action Plan,⁹ which called for the establishment of a U.S. IOOS and recognized it as a major contribution to the Global Ocean Observing System (GOOS). In March of 2009, President Obama signed the Integrated Coastal and Ocean Observation System Act (ICOOS Act),¹⁰ establishing statutory authority for the development of the U.S. IOOS and mandating the establishment of a national integrated system coordinated at the federal level. Through the ICOOS Act, NOAA became the lead federal agency of the U.S. IOOS. Additionally, the Obama Administration established the Ocean Policy Task Force in 2009 and, in 2010, signed an executive order that adopted the task force's final recommendations, which included strengthening and integrating federal and nonfederal ocean observing systems into a national system and integrating the national system into international observation efforts.¹¹ These actions highlight the belief in the value of integrated observing systems. Today, U.S. IOOS contributes to the observing strategies implemented around the globe and plays a major role in global coordination and strategic planning. Coastal ocean observing efforts are implemented through the efforts of regional programs distributed around the US coastal regions. The methods, processes, and lessons learned in establishing these regional associations are documented in a number of journal articles.¹²–¹⁴ Valuable lessons learned from establishing a regional COOS, e.g., the Southeast Coastal Ocean Observing System (SEACOOS, now SECOORA), were reported in a special issue of the Marine Technology Society Journal.¹³,¹⁴ U.S. IOOS achievements are also found in two other special issues of Marine Technology Society Journal (United States Integrated Ocean Observing System: Our Eyes on Our Oceans and Coasts and Great Lakes: Part I & Part II). These special issues, however, focused mainly on the US coastal waters.¹⁵–¹⁷ Only a few papers were devoted to coastal ocean observing activities in other countries, e.g., the European and Australian coasts.¹⁸,¹⁹

This book serves as a collection of state-of-the-art information on the advances and syntheses of the COOS in the United States and beyond, including international partners and success stories. The chapters are contributed by a wide range of authors from both research and management communities, and the content includes COOS development, scientific findings, technology advancements, data management, as well as societal benefits of the coastal ocean observing systems. The goal is to offer best practices, lessons learned, and main achievements that could advise and guide stakeholders, business, and science communities in developing and utilizing evolving COOS information resources.

This book is loosely organized as follows: The chapters on the topic of COOS development are arranged in the first part of the book, followed by the chapters on scientific syntheses and technology advancement, which include HF radar and autonomous underwater vehicles (AUV) applications and data analyses, as well as data assimilation experiments. The chapters on the societal benefits of the coastal ocean observing systems are arranged in the last part of the book. Interested readers can quickly find the relevant chapters of specific interest. The main topics of the book chapters are briefly summarized in the next three sections.

2. Coastal Ocean Observing Systems Development

Most large-scale coastal ocean observing systems are funded through national governments for their own interests, often with different foci, but the world's oceans are connected, therefore partnering is the key to success. Willis²⁰ discusses how the U.S. IOOS, Australia's Integrated Marine Observing System (IMOS), and Canada's Ocean Tracking Network (OTN) are progressing in their respective regions and are working together to observe and compile ocean information in a way that is easily accessible to scientists and managers.

Using the U.S. IOOS as an example, Quintrell et al.²¹ discuss the importance of federal and regional partnerships in coastal ocean observing. The U.S. IOOS was designed by Congress to be a partnership of 17 Federal agencies and enacted through 11 regional systems. Through collaborative projects and shared objectives, these partnerships and regional systems are improving the understanding of the coastal ocean environment, increasing data available to modeling and analysis, improving forecasting capabilities, and improving decision support tools.

For a specific example in the eastern Gulf of Mexico, Weisberg et al.²² present a comprehensive coastal ocean observing and modeling system for the west coast of Florida based on the lessons learned through their sustained long-term coastal ocean observing and modeling efforts over the last two decades. They develop a rationale, offer a system design, and argue that describing and understanding how the coastal ocean works is a prerequisite to predicting the outcomes of either natural or anthropogenic occurrences, and they provide a set of representative examples. The proposed comprehensive coastal ocean observing system may also serve as a guideline for similar systems elsewhere.

For the US West Coast, Kudela et al.²³ report on the development of the California Harmful Algal Bloom Monitoring and Alert Program (CalHABMAP) through ocean observing. The program is an integrated, statewide, harmful algal bloom monitoring and alert network coordinated by organizations and researchers currently collecting HAB data and developing a centralized portal for the dissemination of this information. With the main goal of implementing a statewide HAB network and forecasting system for California, and potentially the US West Coast, CalHABMAP has succeeded in highlighting the need for a coordinated network and serves as partner for regional and national efforts led by the NOAA National Ocean Service, the IOOS, and the NASA Applied Sciences Program.

COOS are in development beyond the US coastlines. For example, the Australian IMOS was formed in 2007, with equipment deployed from the next year onward. Scientific nodes were formed broadly around state boundaries with both nationally unified overarching science goals and local priorities. Roughan et al.²⁴ report the NSW-IMOS as an example of a successfully implemented ocean observing system along the coast of southeastern Australia. The current observational array is designed around pertinent science questions, leveraged existing data streams, and opportunities for further oceanographic research.

On the Brazil coast, dos Santos et al.²⁵ present a newly developed coastal ocean observing system in an active oil and gas area offshore of southeastern Brazil. Since the three-year operational oceanography pilot program for Santos Basin (Projeto Azul) began in 2013, they have collected a variety of data in the Brazil Current meander and Cabo Frio eddy and started data assimilation experiments. Their goal is to build and sustain an industry-oriented coastal ocean observing system.

Bjorkstedt and Peterson²⁶ report on their observations of zooplankton communities and their environment from monthly (or more frequent) 12-h cross-shelf transects in the northern California Current. The authors argue that the old-fashioned approaches to ocean observing—going out to sea on a regular and frequent basis to sample the system—are as holistically as practicable using relatively simple methods. Thus, they enrich the contributions of ocean observing systems to ecosystem-based management in the northern California Current. Challenges and opportunities of the frequently conducted coastal transects in ocean observing systems are also discussed.

3. Science and Technology Advancement

3.1. HF Radar Applications

Shore-based HF radars are a mainstay of many COOS. Operating within a frequency band of 3 to 30  MHz, HF-radar networks are capable of mapping offshore surface currents out to ranges approaching 200  km and with a horizontal resolution of a few kilometers. They may also be used to estimate ocean surface waves. The ability of HF radars to map ocean surface currents and waves over a two-dimensional area, in an operational long-term deployment, even in severe weather conditions, makes them a unique and powerful tool of coastal ocean observing.

Wyatt²⁷ reports on the advance of Australian Coastal Ocean Radar Network (ACORN) as a facility of the Australian IMOS for coastal ocean monitoring. ACORN is currently operating 12 radars arranged in six pairs, and the network is expanding. Examples and analysis on the progress of data products integrating HF radar–measured surface currents, waves, and winds are presented.

Thomas et al.²⁸ discuss the societal benefits of high-resolution wave measurements and HF radar–derived surface currents to maritime operations, emergency responders, and the coastal recreation community. They also highlight the contributions of the Coastal Data Information Program (CDIP) and the Coastal Observing Research and Development Center (CORDC) on those measurements, respectively. CDIP manages and ingests data from over 60 coastal wave buoys, supporting nearshore navigation. CORDC manages the data acquisition and near real-time processing of the U.S. High Frequency Radar network (HFRNet), a network that includes numerous participating organizations. These programs work in partnership with the U.S. IOOS.

Archer et al.²⁹ present recent results and benefits of using radar to investigate shear-zone instability along the frontal regions of the Florida Current, a rapidly evolving western boundary current. They investigated the flow field kinematics of a cyclonic submesoscale frontal eddy and analyzed a near-inertial velocity signal along the anticyclonic flank of the Florida Current, which would be difficult to capture with only ship and moored point measurements.

Flores-Vidal et al.³⁰ report on a study of fine-scale tidal and subtidal variability in an upwelling-influenced bay using HF radar and surface drifter data. They found that two main factors influence the drifter trajectory distribution. One factor is the impinging of the California Coastal Current, which develops a barrier, and the other is the wind field that is confined by the surrounding mountain chain and develops a shadow-like zone inside the bay.

Merz et al.³¹ discuss the effects of spatial/temporal radio frequency interference (RFI) variations of two nearby HF radar sites deployed along the West Florida coast, initially observed via their uneven data storage fill rates. Their experiments show that the application of WERA's listen before talk adaptive algorithm, along with a wide enough bandwidth to operate within, can increase data coverage and signal-to-noise ratio. This topic is of value not only to the WERA user but also as general information to the overall HF radar and integrated coastal and ocean observing communities.

Another type of ocean remote sensing system includes X-band shipborne nautical radar operating at a much higher frequency (around 10  GHz). The radar can be operated from a variety of platforms, such as coastal stations, offshore platforms, as well as moving vessels. The following three chapters are devoted to this topic.

Huang and Gill³² introduce the applications of the X-band radar along the eastern Canadian coast. They describe the methods for extracting sea surface wave information and wind parameters from the radar images, and they present an algorithm for improving the extraction of wind speed from rain-contaminated radar images.

Ludeno et al.³³ provide a review of the state-of-the-art algorithms of X-band radar in estimating nearshore bathymetry. They discuss the limitations of the algorithms in deep water applications, and adopt a correlation procedure to estimate the sea water depth. Examples of X-band radar applications are shown for Italy and Germany. They determined that X-band accuracy is fairly adequate for shallow water, but it decreases significantly as the depth increases. They suggest that the algorithm is applicable to water depths up to 20  m.

Horstmann et al.³⁴ systematically describe X-band marine radar applications in wind, wave, and current retrieval. Overall, they report that winds, waves, and currents are more accurately measured using X-band radar than traditional sensors. Advantages and limitations of such observations are discussed.

3.2. Glider Applications

Gliders and other AUVs are another coastal ocean observing system asset. Gliders are operated remotely, travel long distances, and cover a large range of depths. They serve as a convenient platform for a variety of ocean sensors, such as temperature, conductivity, dissolved oxygen, and various bio-optical measures.

Quality control and quality assurance of profiled data are required for oceanographic analyses. For example, glider salinity data may have errors around thermocline if unpumped CTD sensors are used. Although new thermal lag correction methods are powerful for adjusting the mismatches of the downcast and upcast glider salinity profiles in weakly stratified ocean waters or weak thermoclines, Liu et al.³⁵ found that they were not very effective in correcting the salinity errors in the case of a sharp thermocline. Based on the CTD data collected by an autonomous underwater glider on the West Florida Shelf, Liu et al.³⁵ propose an improved method of glider salinity error correction that can effectively remove these salinity spikes. They also suggest practical procedures of glider salinity correction that are especially useful for glider applications in waters of strong stratification and sharp thermocline.

New sensors for the AUV platform are under development. Shapiro et al.³⁶ report a new sensor for AUVs, the Optical Phytoplankton Discriminator (OPD), which can discriminate phytoplankton community structure and light absorption of chromophoric dissolved organic matter. Identification and quantification of phytoplankton are important because this may help to determine causation and possible effects.

3.3. Data Assimilation Experiments

For COOS, forecasting ocean conditions may be improved through formal techniques of data assimilation, i.e., integrating observations with model simulations to continually improve the initial conditions of the forecasts. Two chapters are devoted to this topic.

Moore et al.³⁷ explore the impact of different observing platforms and control vector elements on four-dimensional variational (4D-Var) analyses of California Current transport using the adjoint Kalman gain matrix to map a transport metric into observation space. They provide a direct quantitative measure of the observing system impact on ocean state estimates spanning three decades and reveal the complex interplay between different observing platforms within the 4D-Var analyses as different observing systems become available.

Ngodock et al.³⁸ report on their findings of the impact of HF radar observations on constraining and improving model forecasts of the coastal ocean circulation in the Mid-Atlantic region of the US east coast using a very high-resolution Navy Coastal Ocean Model³⁹ and a 4D-Var data assimilation system. They find that the assimilation system can propagate the influence of these surface velocity measurements through all the model variables in space and time. The benefits and limitations of using high-resolution models are also tested and discussed.

4. Societal Benefits

Deriving societal benefits is at the heart of COOS. System priorities are guided by stakeholder needs. In fact, funding and Congressional support for these systems hinges on the system's ability to demonstrate its value to society. As noted earlier, there are many examples of societal benefits in the previously published special issues on IOOS in the Marine Technology Society Journal (2008, 2010, and 2011). Three chapters are devoted to demonstrating societal value, although as will be apparent upon reading, all previous chapters provide examples of societal benefits.

Buskey et al.⁴⁰ discuss benefits resulting from the U.S. National Estuarine Research Reserve System (NERRS) monitoring program. Established in 1995, this monitoring program develops quantitative measurements of short-term variability and long-term changes in abiotic and biotic properties of estuarine ecosystems for the purpose of informing effective coastal management. It also generates a national database on estuarine ecosystems. Buskey et al.⁴⁰ demonstrate how these data inform coastal managers on issues such as water quality assessment, habitat mapping and change analysis, establishment of nutrient criteria for estuaries, and understanding the predicted impacts of climate change.

Porter et al.⁴¹ review the state of observing system efforts from the U.S. Southeast Coastal Ocean Observing Regional Association (SECOORA). As one of the 11 regional associations in the U.S. IOOS, the SECOORA implement a cohesive Regional Coastal Ocean Observing System (RCOOS) for the southeast United States, encompassing coastal waters of North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida (including the southeast Atlantic seaboard, the Straits of Florida, and the eastern Gulf of Mexico). Porter et al⁴¹ present case studies demonstrating the value of integrating data from these systems to support marine safety, water quality, and ecosystem management decision making. They also provide valuable recommendations for the path forward for the SECOORA.

Society benefits of a regional coastal ocean observing system are also discussed by Simoniello et al.⁴² using the Gulf of Mexico Coastal Ocean Observing System (GCOOS) as an example. Particularly, the economic benefits of the GCOOS ocean monitoring systems are quantified using an economic model, and the return on investment is also assessed. Their results demonstrate that, from an economic perspective, the nominal investment made to date in observing systems results in great value to society.

5. Concluding Remarks

Albeit based on only a small subset of coastal ocean observing system activities worldwide, the chapters in their composite demonstrate the importance of and the progress made in implementing and utilizing coastal ocean observations for the benefits of society. Effective environmental stewardship must be based on defensible science, which in turn requires observations and hypothesis testing. Coastal ocean observing systems are, therefore, prerequisites for reliably forecasting results from either natural or human-induced perturbations to the coastal ocean. Regardless of the concerns, from damage by severe weather, mishaps from oil and gas operations, management of living marine resources to the simple, aesthetic enjoyment of nature, the advancement of a coastal ocean observing system agenda will make a positive contribution to society.

But the development of a coastal ocean observing system is no small task. Required are partnerships across agencies (federal, state, and local), the private sector, and academia, in addition to international cooperation. The challenges are, therefore, deep and complex, which may help to explain the pace of development. As demonstrated by the contributing authors to this book, success stories come from challenges.

As editors, we hope this book sheds light and provides ample evidence on the value of coastal ocean observing system advances and the importance of building and sustaining them into the future.

Acknowledgments

Partial salary support to Weisberg and Liu derives from the Southeast Coastal Ocean Observing Regional Association (SECOORA) as a pass through from NOAA Grant # NA11NOS0120033, the NASA Ocean Surface Topography Science Team (OSTST) grant # NNX13AE18G, and the Gulf of Mexico Research Institute through the Florida State University Deep-C Program. This is CPR Contribution 41. Kerkering received salary support from the Pacific Islands Ocean Observing System through Cooperative Agreement #NA11NOS0120039, with NOAA National Ocean Service.

References

1. Ocean.US. An integrated and sustained ocean observing system (IOOS) for the United States: design and implementation. Ocean.US Publication; May 2002.

2. Lindstrom E.J. Establishing an integrated ocean observing system for the United States. Mar Technol Soc J. 2003;37:28–31.

3. Clark A.M. On integrating and sustaining a national ocean observing system. Mar Technol Soc J. 2003;37:3–4.

4. Hankin S, Bernard L, Cornillon P, Grassle F, Legler D, Lever J, et al. Designing the data and communications infrastructure for the U.S. integrated ocean observing System. Mar Technol Soc J. 2003;37:51–54.

5. O'Keefe S. Facing the challenges of an integrated ocean observing system. Mar Technol Soc J. 2003;37:7–8.

6. Seim H.E. SEA-COOS: a model for a multi-state, multi-institutional regional observation system. Mar Technol Soc J. 2003;37:92–101.

7. Pew Oceans Commission. America’s living oceans: charting a course for sea change, a report to the nation recommendations for a new ocean policy. Arlington, Virginia: Pew Oceans Commission; May 2003.

8. U.S. Commission on Ocean Policy. An ocean blueprint for the 21st century. Final report Washington, DC. 20040-9759462-0-X.

9. United States Government. U.S. Ocean action plan: the Bush administration’s response to the U.S. ocean commission on ocean policy Washington D.C. Exec. Order No. 13366, 3. C.F.R; December 17, 2004.

10. Interagency Ocean Observation Committee. The integrated coastal and ocean observation system act of 2009 Pub. L. No. 111-11, 33. U.S.C; 2009 §3601-3610. Available at:. http://www.iooc.us/ocean-observing-legislation/integrated-coastal-ocean-observation-act-of-2009/.

11. United States Government. Stewardship of the ocean, our coasts, and the Great Lakes Executive Order No. 13547, 3. C.F.R; July 19, 2010 Available at:. http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/executive-order-stewardship-ocean-our-coasts-and-great-lakes.

12. Briscoe M.G, Martin D.L, Malone T.C. Evolution of regional efforts in international GOOS and U.S. IOOS. Mar Technol Soc J. 2008;42:4–9.

13. Seim H.E, Nelson J, Fletcher M, Mooers C.N.K, Spence L, Weisberg R.H, et al. SEACOOS program management. Mar Technol Soc J. 2008;42:11–27.

14. Nelson J, Weisberg R.H. In situ observations and satellite remote sensing in SEACOOS: program development and lessons learned. Mar Technol Soc J. 2008;42:41–54.

15. Cowles T, Delaney J, Orcutt J, Weller R. The ocean observatories initiative: sustained ocean observing across a range of spatial scales. Mar Technol Soc J. 2010;44:54–64.

16. Read J, Klump V, Johengen T, Schwab D, Paige K, Eddy S, et al. Working in freshwater: the Great Lakes observing system contributions to regional and national observations, data infrastructure, and decision support. Mar Technol Soc J. 2010;44:84–98.

17. Pettigrew N.R, Fikes C.P, Beard M.K. Advances in the ocean observing system in the gulf of Maine: technical capabilities and scientific results. Mar Technol Soc J. 2011;45:85–97.

18. Proctor R, Howarth J. Coastal observatories and operational oceanography: a European perspective. Mar Technol Soc J. 2008;42:10–13.

19. Hill K, Moltmann T, Proctor R, Allen S. The Australian Integrated Marine observing system: delivering data streams to address national and international research priorities. Mar Technol Soc J. 2010;44:65–72.

20. Willi Z. National effort in a global context. 2015 [this book].

21. Quintrell J, Luettich R, Baltes B, Kirkpatrick B, Stumpf R.P, Schwab D.J, et al. The importance of federal and regional partnerships in coastal observing. 2015 [this book].

22. Weisberg R.H, Zheng L, Liu Y. Basic tenets for coastal ocean ecosystems monitoring: a west Florida perspective, coastal ocean observing systems: advances and syntheses. Elsevier; 2015 [this book].

23. Kudela R.M, Bickel A, Carter M.L, Howard M.D.A, Rosenfeld L. The monitoring of harmful algal blooms through ocean observing: the development of CalHABMAP. 2015 [this book].

24. Roughan M, Schaeffer A, Suthers I. Sustained ocean observing along the coast of southeastern Australia: NSW-IMOS. 2015 2007–2014. [this book].

25. dos Santos F.A, Oliveira A.L.S, Soares F.L.M, Carvalho G.V, São Tiago P.M, Santos N.G, et