Fijian Medicinal Plants

By RC Cambie and J Ash

This comprehensive compilation presents the available reports on the medicinal use of Fijian plants in an attractive and readable form using 'everyday' terms as much as possible. The book covers the origin and dispersal of plants, literature, use of medicinal plants within traditional Fijian culture, diseases of Fiji, and medicinal chemicals from plants. Four hundred and fifty plant species are described.

The entries for species are arranged by plant family, and give current botanical name, Fijian or local name, brief botanical notes, medicinal uses and chemistry. Separate indexes to plant species and Fijian names are provided, as well as a glossary of medicinal and botanical terms.

This book may point the way to plants from which new and effective cures might be obtained.

• Language: English
• Publisher: CSIRO PUBLISHING
• Release date: Jan 1, 1994
• ISBN: 9780643102958

Book preview

Preface

The purpose of this book is to bring together available reports on the medicinal use of Fijian plants. Different authors have at various times recorded their observations in this field but no comprehensive or up-to-date compilation exists. This book is intended to present current knowledge in an attractive and readable form.

Many of the herbal remedies recorded in this book are still being used, and we are aware of a current revival in their use. We hope our work will encourage other people to make further observations, and we request readers to record their findings or inform us of gaps in our record. We have presented all of the information we have been able to find but, in general, we have refrained from including material which is not recorded in written form or which has not been obtained from a recognised verbal source. *Some additional information has been added to past records, but our main task has been to collect information scattered throughout the literature. Each statement concerning reported medicinal uses and chemical constituents is referenced, indicating where further information is available. Where possible, the chemical references are to individual papers but, where a wealth of information is available, recourse has been made to books or major reviews.

The format of this book is similar to that of New Zealand Medicinal Plants¹ of which one of the current authors is a co-author. Each species (about 450) whether endemic or introduced is arranged by plant family, and each entry gives its current botanical name, Fijian or local name, brief botanical notes, its medicinal uses, and finally a list of the known chemical constituents. In some cases these chemicals can be identified as the active principles but, in very many cases, the latter are unknown, and in even more cases no chemical investigation has been carried out. The book is completed by indices of plant species, Fijian and local names, and a glossary of medical and botanical terms. Unlike New Zealand Medicinal Plants, and in the interests of keeping our book within manageable limits, we have omitted notes on related pharmacology. However, we have indicated other countries where the plant has also been used medicinally, and, where possible, we have recorded the medicinal uses in Tonga, Samoa and Niue, since many plant species are common to these countries and to Fiji, and many medicinal uses are the same or similar in all four places.

The botanical information in this book is intended to assist the recognition of medicinal species and also to indicate where the plants may be found. Individual plant descriptions are not botanically diagnostic and, for the benefit of the non-botanist, have been couched as far as possible in everyday terms. Thus, this book is not intended as a general guide to plant identification, and it is well to bear in mind that only about 450 of the approximately 2300 plant species which occur in Fiji are described here.

Botanical names and their authorities are based upon several sources: Brownlie (1977)² for the pteridophytes (ferns); Smith (1979)³ for the monocotyledons, except orchids; Smith (1981, 1985, 1988)⁴ for many dicotyledons; and Parham (1972)⁵ for any dicotyledons and the orchids, which are not discussed by Smith. Where medicinal uses have been attributed under an alternative name (synonym), these names are included after the currently accepted species name. Both the current name and the synonyms are included in the index.

Local Fijian names are taken from Parham (1972)⁵ and Smith (1979, 1981, 1985, 1988).³,⁴ The latter uses an orthography which has some currency among authors writing primarily for readers outside the country. However, since the present book is intended primarily for use in Fiji we have used the standard Fijian orthography, as Parham does. In this system:

b is pronounced mb, as in member;

d is pronounced nd, as in Monday;

q is pronounced ngg, as in finger;

g is pronounced ng, as in singer;

c is pronounced th, as in father.

For example, the climbing plant Qalo (Flagellaria indica L.) is pronounced Nggalo, and these anglicised spellings may be found in some publications. Unlike botanical names, local names vary from place to place and language to language. Several names may be given to the same plant, and the same name to different and, in some cases, unrelated plants. For example ‘danidani’ can apply to Polyscias multijuga (fam. Araliaceae), Croton storkii (Euphorbiaceae), and Zingiber zerumbet (Zingiberaceae).

A further complication arises because the transcription of a spoken name is often made by a botanist who is unfamiliar with the language and phonetics. The local informant may have invented a name, sometimes humorous, to satisfy the botanist, but this is recorded as if it were an established name. The result is that lists of local names often include several spellings of the same name, incorrectly applied names, and names which were made up by the informant. It is difficult to be certain that a name is incorrect, but it is possible to determine which names are generally recognised. In this book, only the well-known local names are included: some previously published names have been omitted. All Fijian names have been authenticated by Mr S. Vodonaivalu of the Fiji Herbarium.

Three major groups of plants are distinguished: pteridophytes (mostly ferns), monocotyledons (grasses, palms, gingers, etc.), and dicotyledons (most broad-leaved herbs and trees). It is notable that the gymnosperms (conifers), bryophytes (mosses and liverworts), algae, lichens and fungi are not apparently used medicinally. Within the three major taxonomic groups, the medicinal species are classified according to their families and follow an alphabetic sequence, firstly by family, and secondly by species within the family. The family represents a natural grouping of species, and typically the species share many chemical and medicinal properties. Certain families are important medicinally, e.g. Euphorbiaceae and Rubiaceae, while other families are scarcely represented despite the presence of many species in Fiji. We have used an alphabetical sequence for families because this simplifies reference to the plants, and because the various ‘natural’ systems proposed by different botanists tend to confuse the general reader.

The botanical notes on the plants have been kept as non-technical as possible, but some botanical terms are unavoidable, and these are explained in the glossary. The notes are based on several sources, including live specimens, herbarium specimens held in Suva, and published sources; notably Smith,³,⁴ Brownlie,² and Parham.⁵ The reader is referred to these sources for further information.

The photographs of live plants were taken by the authors, except where other credits are given. All the photographs were taken on 35 mm film, mostly Kodachrome 64, using an 80–210 mm Tamron lens, with electronic flash lighting. A number of water-coloured engravings by W.H. Fitch, which originally appeared in Seeman’s Flora Vitiensis⁶ are included. The black and white reproductions of these illustrations which appear in Parham⁵ and Seemann⁶ do not do justice to the originals which still rank as a welcome alternative to colour photographs.

We have been encouraged in compiling this book, since we believe it will assist professional scientists in further investigations and may point the way to plants from which new and effective cures may be obtained. We believe our book is opportune, since there appears to have been a recent revival of knowledge of medicinal plants, as a result of a more open approach by health authorities towards traditional medicines. We note a comment⁷ by a former Minister for Health and Social Welfare, Dr Apenisa Kurisaqila, who ‘called on the people of Lomaiviti to use traditional herbs and medicine for the cure of some diseases. ...He said people were accustomed to drugs and medicine and had discarded traditional remedies... With the heavy demands on medical services and the high cost involved, the Ministry had recommended that Fijians revive the traditional curative practices their forefathers had used.’

According to Mrs Suliana Siwatibau,⁸ formerly of the Fiji Ministry of Energy, who is a foremost authority on Fiji’s medicinal plants, there is a large and valuable international trade in medicinal plants found in the South Pacific. If this is so, we hope this book may assist in fostering interest in this area.

The authors are grateful to all who have assisted in the compilation and preparation of this book. In particular, we acknowledge the assistance of Marta Veroni, Helen Kinniburgh and Linda Kemp of CSIRO Publications, Melbourne, the librarian and staff of the National Archives of Fiji, the librarian of the Auckland Institute and Museum, Dr Ajit Singh, Mrs Suliana Siwatibau, Mr Robert Buchanan, Dr John Braggins, and the encouragement of our colleagues from the University of the South Pacific. Special thanks are due to Mr Saula Vodonaivalu for his assistance in locating and identifying many of the plants which have been used to illustrate this book.

The South Pacific Region

Caution

This book is not intended for prescribing medicines or for curing afflictions. The authors do not endorse any plant or method of application recorded here for any particular ailment and they do not accept responsibility for the popular ‘remedies’ listed therein. We strongly discourage experimentation by untrained persons in the collection or administration of Fijian plants for medicinal purposes, since they may be dangerous.

* Even so we are not in a position to verify its efficacy or validity.

Introduction

The origins and dispersal of Fiji’s medicinal plants

Fiji is an archipelago of about 500 islands and islets in the tropical south-west Pacific. The nearest continental areas are New Zealand, 1800 km to the south, Australia, 2600 km to the west, and America, 10 000 km to the east. There are, however, many other island groups in the south-west Pacific, so Fiji is not as isolated as these distances indicate.

The Fiji Islands are primarily of volcanic origin; either eroded volcanoes or uplifted sediments derived from volcanoes. In addition, coral reef limestones have developed offshore and in places have been lifted above sea level, but the underlying rock is of volcanic origin. These volcanoes have been active at various times during the past 50 million years, some as recently as the past few thousand years, but most uplift only dates back about 5 million years. It seems probable that the ancestors of all the plants in Fiji arrived from overseas, most within this 5 million-year period.

Before the arrival of humans, the introduction of plants would have been through spores and seeds carried by water, wind, or animals from other islands and distant continents. Most of these plants seem to have originated in the tropical regions of South East Asia, Melanesia and Australia. Many coastal plants have floating seeds, e.g. tiri (Rhizophora) and vutu (Barringtonia), and these are widespread in the tropical Pacific region. The spore-producing ferns and fungi are readily dispersed by the wind, and these are also widespread on the humid tropical Pacific Islands. In contrast, most of the inland seed plants are adapted for dispersal by animals, and their distribution is related to the activity of birds and bats which can cross the sea passages. The chance that animals will carry viable seeds across the sea may seem rather remote, but it would only require one successful introduction every 3000 years to have produced the Fijian flora.

Many of these long-established or ‘indigenous’ plants have evolved new species which do not occur elsewhere and are, therefore, known as ‘endemics’. Virtually all the endemic plants and most of the indigenous plants are forest species. Only a few species are adapted to germinate and grow on disturbed soil in full sunshine, such as landslide scars, river banks, coastal beaches, cliffs and mudflats.

Since the arrival of humans about 3500 years ago, the vegetation has changed in several ways. Firstly, the immigrants brought seeds and live plants of useful species, as well as other less desirable weed species, which were carried by accident. These plants are generally termed ‘aboriginal’ or ‘early’ introductions and perhaps number 100-200 species, but it is difficult to be certain they are not indigenous or later introductions. These early introductions are well represented in lists of medicinal plants, and are widely used throughout the tropical Pacific.

The other major impact of the immigrants was the change they made to the existing vegetation. Forest was cleared for villages and gardens, and other forested areas were destroyed by fires. The talasiga grasslands, which occur in most hilly areas with a marked dry season, are probably the product of repeated fires. Few of the indigenous species are well adapted to either abandoned gardens or talasiga grasslands, but most of the more recently introduced species thrive in these habitats and are rarely found in undisturbed forest. Walking from a village with cultivated gardens, through abandoned gardens and secondary forest, and on into undisturbed forest, one passes from a predominantly introduced flora containing many medicinal plants to a predominantly indigenous one with infrequent medicinal plants.

With the arrival of Europeans during the 19th century, large-scale agriculture and, later, forestry activities were developed. Grazing animals, notably cattle and goats, were introduced and have decimated the more palatable species of herbage. Forestry has both removed certain timber trees and created disturbed, open habitats suitable for introduced weedy species. Plantation agriculture has been based upon the coconut and recently imported crops such as sugar cane, bananas, ginger, tobacco and citrus. Cultivation also creates disturbed sunny habitats suitable for exotic weed species. In addition to the introduced crops and weeds, there are many introduced ornamental plants which are frequently seen in gardens.

In contrast to the slow rate of natural plant introductions, the recent introductions have been arriving at a rate of about five species every year for the past 150 years. Quarantine regulations attempt to control this deluge of new species, but the flora is likely to continue to expand.

Medicinal uses are reported amongst all these categories of plants: endemic, indigenous, early and recent introductions. Medicinal uses for the endemic species are obviously restricted to Fiji, but several of the widespread indigenous species and most introduced species with medicinal properties are utilised elsewhere. Indeed, some of the introduced species were brought to Fiji for their medicinal properties.

No attempt has been made to define a pre-European ethnic Fijian pharmacopoeia. Many of the most frequently used medicinal plants were probably introduced by humans, but it is usually not possible to determine if they were present before European contact. Recently introduced medicinal plants have been adopted very quickly, and it is doubtful if even the earliest written accounts of the Fijians’ use of plants would exclude European introductions.

The present population of Fiji includes indigenous Fijians and immigrant Polynesians, Indians, Chinese and Europeans. Each of these ethnic groups has introduced both plants and knowledge of the medicinal uses of plants. Some of this information has spread between the ethnic groups.

According to Singh et al.,⁹ ‘the Fijian Indians, who comprise over 50 per cent of the population, have as part of their rich cultural heritage an overwhelming reliance on herbal folk medicine’. When Girmityas first came from India to Fiji during the indenture period¹⁰ aspects of traditional practices, especially Ayurveda (herbal medicine), were transported with them. Subsequent additions to this knowledge were made by Indian immigrants who came in the post-indenture period as traders, entrepreneurs, teachers, holy men, healers, etc.

Published accounts of medicinal plants have been primarily written for academic circles, and have probably scarcely affected the practitioners. The species included in this book are those which certain Fijians use, but they are not necessarily part of a pre-European tradition.

Literature on Fijian medicinal plants

The literature on Fijian medicinal plants is dispersed and somewhat fragmented. Berthold Seemann in his Flora Vitiensis⁶ recorded a few medicinal uses, but covered some 17 species, including poisonous plants and abortifacients, in his Mission to Viti, published in 1862.¹¹ Seemann clearly experienced difficulty in compiling his list, writing that ‘The medicinal plants employed by the natives are as difficult, perhaps more difficult, to find out than the poisonous ones used for illegal purposes. Those who profess to be acquainted with their properties – often women and answering to our herbalists – cannot be tempted by any presents to disclose secrets which, to them, prove a lucrative source of income for life. It is only the virtues of plants generally known that a casual inquirer has any chance of learning.’

The Rev. Father Emmanuel Rougier, of the Catholic Mission, Naililili, Rewa, in articles¹² originally published in Bull. de la Soc. d’Etudes Océaniennes in 1923, and subsequently translated by Dr C.A. La Touche Brough for the Fijian Transactions, reported the first major compilation of medicinal plants. The article dealt at length with the various theories and beliefs concerning the cause of disease and with local custom. Rougier was pessimistic about the future, fortunately with fears that were largely unfounded: ‘After fifty years of contact with civilization the physique of the Fijian, naturally robust, has become sickly. ...Will the race resist this avalanche of new diseases? Probably not. It appears to me also to be well to commit all this to writing, while there is still time.’

Dorothy Spencer,¹³ in a chapter entitled ‘Fijian Pharmacological Therapy’ from the book Disease, religion and society, listed a number of cures from medicinal plants, but the most informative compilation is that by H.B. Richenda Parham entitled ‘Fiji native plants with their medicinal and other uses’¹⁴ which appeared in The Memoirs of the Polynesian Society in 1943. Although many species are misnamed and errors abound, it remains the most comprehensive account to date.

In later years, various articles, e.g. by Weiner¹⁵ and others have mainly listed local uses, but Bernhard Zepernick’s Arzneipflanzen der polynesier¹⁶ includes the medicinal uses of many Fijian plants which have not been mentioned by earlier authors. Although it does not include uses in Fiji, the most recent compilation of medicinal plants in the East and South-east Asian region,¹⁷ by Lily M. Perry, published in 1980, is a fund of knowledge on the subject. Of great value in obtaining information for this book has been the unpublished article¹⁸ by Dr A. Singh, entitled ‘Medicinal Plants in Fiji and other South Pacific Islands’, part of which was delivered at a World Health Organisation Seminar in Tokyo in 1977.¹⁹ We are grateful to Dr A. Singh, who kindly allowed us to quote from his unpublished article.

Medicinal plants and the Fijian supernatural world

Fijians, like many other peoples of the Pacific, have views of the supernatural which are a syncretism of Christian teachings and indigenous systems of belief and practice. Elements from both traditions may be called upon to justify or explain a wide range of unusual or threatening aspects of daily life. In the sphere of accidents, illness and other personal misfortunes, however, it is the indigenous systems which are the more elaborated and the ones most frequently called upon.

According to Spencer¹³ writing in the 1920s, Fijians of that time distinguished two categories of sickness. The first included illnesses of the body (mate vayano) such as coughs, colds, earache, headache, etc., which were regarded as casual conditions resulting from accidental circumstances. The second grouped together ‘diseases of the land’ (mate ni vanua) which were caused either directly or indirectly by the spirits (vu) or by magical means. Diseases in this category could result from various types of behaviour, including offences committed by mortals against the spirits. Ailments caused by sorcerers were usually included in the latter category, but some authorities prefer to place them in a separate class.

Raruvu,²⁰ writing more recently, and on the basis of research in a different part of Fiji, gives a good account of the way in which Fijians classify dauvakatevoro, or those who practice magic through inciting or propitiating the evil spirits which affect people with illness and misfortune. They are held to have the power to do either good or evil. Some use herbs and/or exuvia of the victim while others use infusions of yaqona, Beliefs in the power of spirits over the living are strong among Fijians, and those people who have the capacity and knowledge to control spirit influences are widely respected, and to some extent feared.

A mortal’s power to cure sickness with medicinal plants was generally believed to be derived from the power of the spirit that the person appeased or worshipped, or who had directed them either in a dream or by some mystical sign to go forth and minister to the people.²⁰ According to tradition, there were two kinds of medicine (ne i drotu), the medicines of death and the medicines of life. Paramount among these were herbal or plant remedies. Many such remedies are of pathological value only and others are only auto-suggestive curatives. Leaves were often involved in the compounding of potions, the leaves having magical power which could demoralise, or engender hatred, jealousy or love.¹⁴ For example, leaves of bene viriviri (Jasminum betchei) were chewed when Fijians were in a strange district in order to prevent their being bewitched (vakadraunikaued). In a similar fashion, the leaves of kalabuci (Acalypha insulana) were chewed to ensure safety on unfamiliar tracks, while those of kalabuci damu (Acalypha wilkesiana) were chewed to keep one safe from all harm.

A number of trees were treated with what amounted to ‘superstitious veneration’.¹⁴ Examples of such sacred or devil trees include dawa (Pometia pinnata), merikula (Maesa persicifolia), nokonoko (Casuarina equisetifolia), tarawau (Dracontomelon vitiense), baka (Ficus obliqua) and the tern koukoutangane (Dipteris conjugata). The boia (Alpinia boia) was under the care of the veli (spirits of the woods), and it was believed that anyone who touched it would be overtaken by some evil. To cut it or to cut vesi (Intsia bijuga) was to risk even worse calamities. Bovo (Mussaenda raiateensis) was included among the mystery plants of Fiji, and in early days it came into evil repute. Early Fijians believed the veli made their yaqona (or kava) from the roots of yaqoyaqona (Piper puberulum) and thus the plant was sacred. The moli karokaro (Citrus limon), the common lemon, are said to be grown near houses not only for their fruits but also as a protection against evil. Tevoras (malign influences) could then work no harm, since the moli karokaro wielded a more potent charm.

Beliefs about plants often played a part in social behaviour. In some places it was said that those who dug graves must eat a kura (Morinda citrifolia) leaf after the work was done or some evil would overtake them. An old custom when Fijian women went fishing was to throw leaves of the tavotavo (Premna taitensis), the soni (Caesalpinia bonduc) or the meme (Ervatamia orientalis) into the middle of their net as a charm. To make the charm more effective, the first fish that was caught had to be thrown back into the sea. Should the fishing be unsuccessful, a spirit was believed to be among the fish – a counter charm was to kick backwards with the feet in the water. A drink made from the leaves of wakiwaki (Hibiscus abelmoschus) with an equal number of leaves of evuevu (Hernandia nymphaeifolia) was credited with causing sterility. However, in order to prevent conception, the decoction had to be drunk at a certain phase of the moon. Again, a decoction of the bark of moamoa (unidentified) was used for earache and headache, but on no account could the sufferer eat octopus, crabs or any food that turned red when boiled, since then the cure could not possibly work. The use of the leaves of losilosi (Ficus barclayana) as a poultice for sore legs and varicose veins is said to stem from the fact that Dakuwaqa, a terrible sea monster, had changed shape to a man and had commanded that a sick man with dreadful sores on his legs be treated with the chewed leaves of losilosi.

Fire and plants also played an important part in various beliefs. It is reported that in some areas kuluva (Dillenia biflora) could not be used on a cooking fire, since the wood was believed to be infected, so that a person eating food cooked over it would suffer from an infected oesophagus or stomach. In a similar vein, in some coastal villages, food cooked over wood from the sinu (Phaleria disperma) would cause an affliction around the anus. Furthermore, a general belief existed that food for nursing mothers should not be cooked over a fire fed by moli wood (Citrus spp.) since this could cause either scabies or lumps on the head of the child.

Early notes on the traditions and customs of the Fijians in relation to contraception, pregnancy and parturition are given by Blyth.²¹

Diseases of Fiji

Many of the present-day diseases to be found in Fiji are ones which were introduced in the islands by Europeans and which were unknown in aboriginal times. Diseases known or thought to be present prior to the arrival of Europeans were leprosy, filariasis, yaws and ankylostomiasis, but some doubt exists as to whether or not tuberculosis was in this category. In an article in the Transactions of the Fijian Society, W.H. McDonald²² reports that, ‘before white men came, no one died of acute diseases: all the people who died were emaciated by lingering infirmities before death. Coughs came with white men, so did dysentery’. McDonald also reports that sufferers who became a burden to themselves and offensive to their friends were strangled ‘doubtless with every mark of affection.’ However, measles, influenza, whooping cough, chicken pox, smallpox, cholera, cerebospinal meningitis, and venereal diseases, all of which were to ravage the local population in the form of epidemics, resulted from European contact.

McDonald suggests that the first epidemic could have been introduced by seamen of HMS Pandora under the command of Lieutenant Hayward when he visited the island of Lakeba in 1791 in search of the mutineers of the Bounty. On more concrete ground is the report written in 1843–1844 by the Rev. John Hunt in the memoirs of the Rev. William Cross, the first missionary to Fiji, about the first European ship seen by people of the Southern Lau Group. This vessel was shipwrecked on the Bukatatanoa or Argo Reef to the east of Lakeba in or about 1800. ‘Shortly after their [the shipwrecked mariners] death, a dreadful distemper scourged the natives.’ McDonald²² suggests that, from its description, it appeared to have been a very acute dysentery or a form of cholera. ‘Its progress through the Group was fearfully rapid and destructive: in many places, it was with the greatest difficulty that persons could be found to bury the dead. Those who were seized died in the most excruciating agonies.’

In about 1875, a few natives of Fiji visited Australia, and on their return brought measles with them. The death roll from the resulting lila epidemic, together with pneumonia and dysentery which were common complications, was estimated to be between a quarter and a third of the population – some 40 000 individuals out of an estimated population of 150 000. The epidemic has been described by Derrick²³ as ‘Fiji’s darkest hour’. Other epidemics followed, whooping-cough, dengue, meningitis and influenza. A further measles epidemic in 1903 with some 44 385 cases is reputed to have attacked nearly half of the Fijian population, while the world-wide influenza epidemic of 1918 attacked at least 80 per cent of the Fijian and Indian population over a five-week period and resulted in the death of around 8000 or 5 per cent of the population. A threatened outbreak of the plague in 1900, which had occurred in New Caledonia and Tahiti, was only averted as a result of stringent precautions, but the Southern Lau Group did not escape later epidemics of smallpox and of tuberculosis which followed.

With the advent of these epidemics and the unavailability of European drugs, it is not surprising that many plant remedies were tried. Many Fijian medicinal plants are common weeds or coastal plants of the type found around villages. Indeed, it has been estimated that 75 per cent of the plants used medicinally are readily available. On a botanical expedition, the authors were able to photograph a surprising number of species within the backyard of a village house.

Medicinal chemicals from plants

The chemicals from plants which are of medicinal value are usually those commonly referred to as secondary metabolites. They are distinct from the natural polymers or primary metabolites such as cellulose, starch, etc., which are present in all flowering plants.

Of greatest medical importance are probably the alkaloids, a diverse class of natural products which contain nitrogen, and which have provided many notable drugs such as morphine, strychnine, quinine, reserpine, etc. Although most alkaloids are poisonous, they can have definite physiological and therapeutic effects when administered in lower concentrations. For example, hyoscine (scopolamine) (see p. 286) is used for stomach ulcers and sea sickness. Alkaloid-bearing plants, many of which are of long-standing reputation in folk medicines, usually have a bitter taste and are often regarded as tonics on account of their stimulating effect on the flow of saliva. Moreover, by increasing the flow of gastric juices, they increase the appetite and stimulate digestion. Those with a mild level of toxicity can be used as purgatives or emetics.

Some plants, e.g. those in the families Euphorbiaceae and Urticaceae, exude a latex if the stem or leaf is broken. The latex may be harmless, but is frequently irritating or corrosive. It can often contain proteolytic enzymes, i.e. enzymes which break down proteins into simpler fragments and then into their component amino acids, thereby permitting gradual elimination of the proteins. This action on proteins is the reason for the irritation which they cause. However, such action can be put to good use in the removal of warts or corns or for cleaning the surface of ulcers and wounds.²⁴

Plants with leaves that contain oil glands provide essential oils – volatile oils which can be steam distilled. Frequently, such leaves when crushed provide an aromatic odour. These oils, such as Eucalyptus oil, can be used for respiratory ailments, while many have antibacterial activity. This property can often be traced to the presence of terpenoid compounds. For example, 1,8-cineole, terpinen-4-ol, α-terpineol, and the monoterpene aldehydes, citral, geranial and citronellal, all have high antibacterial activity. Of these, 1,8-cineole is used as an antiseptic and is a standard additive to cough mixtures, mouthwashes, nasal sprays, liniments, and throat preparations, while α-terpineol has been used as an antiseptic. Terpin hydrate (menthane-l,8-diol) has been used for many years as an expectorant in cough mixtures. Menthol is used primarily in lotions, vapour or analgesic balms, cough drops, or in oral and nasal sprays. It has a slight anaesthetic action, a slight antiseptic action, and is a counter-irritant. Camphor, a well-known odorant, has mild antiseptic, analgesic and antipuritic activity.

Other common plant constituents with germicidal properties are geraniol, citronellol, piper-itol, piperitone, linalool, thujone, and the aromatic compounds safrole, eugenol, methyleugenol, anethole, thymol, guaiacol and carvacrol. Of these, linalool is used commercially as a bactericide, and it, as well as α-terpineol, piperitone, and α-phellandrene have appreciable larvicidal activity or anthelmintic properties. Eugenol finds extensive use as a dental antiseptic and anaesthetic, while anethole is also used in some pharmaceutical preparations. The fungicidal properties of thymol are utilised in controlling dermatitis and it is used in dusting powders for ringworm.

Of the alcohols, mannitol is used for a wide range of therapeutic agents with laxative or diuretic action. Since it is chemically stable, is not hygroscopic, and because it has a pleasant taste and is smoothly disintegrated in the mouth, it is primarily responsible for the effectiveness of chewable tablets. The related polyhydroxy compound sorbitol is a galenical and is used in cosmetics and as a starting material for vitamin C preparation.

Long-chain fatty acids find therapeutic use. Intravenously, oleic acid causes hemolysis of red blood corpuscles. Like stearic acid, it is used in pharmacy for the preparation of ointments, suppositories, creams and cosmetic products. Lack of linoleic and linolenic acids in the diet leads to eczyma, dry scaly skin and dermatitis. They are used in conjunction with cholesterol and lecithin to alleviate such skin conditions. Hydrocarpic (C15H27CO2H) and chaulmoogric (C17H31CO2H) acids were formerly used to treat leprosy. Of the smaller carboxylic acids, oxalic acid, either in the free form or its soluble salts, will prevent blood coagulation by removing calcium ions as insoluble calcium oxalate. Succinates have an analgesic action, while lactic acid is added to infant formulations to aid digestion. It is also employed as a spermatocidal agent in contraception. The higher fatty acids such as heptylic, caprylic, pelagonic, capric and undecylenic acids are effective antifungal agents. Ricinoleic acid (from castor oil) may be regarded as a simplified prostaglandin. Both benzoic and salicylic acids have antiseptic and germicidal properties, the former being employed in lotions, ointments, and mouthwashes. Gallic acid is both a fungistatic and an astringent and is used to treat diarrhoea. A characteristic property of saponins is that they can exhibit antimicrobial, particularly antifungal, activity.²⁵

In general, polyphenolics possess some fungistatic and bactericidal properties. Many plants contain tannins, polyphenolic compounds whose name derives from their use in tanning hides. Tannins precipitate proteinaceous matter, and act as astringents drawing tissues together and contracting them. This property is used in treating inflamed mucous membranes characteristic of coughs, colds, and for alleviating intestinal infections or for bathing wounds. Tannins are also used as hemostatics, as an astringent for diarrhoea, and in the treatment of burns. Mucilage, which may be apparent as a slimy exudate from a damaged portion of a plant, can act as a soothing medication for inflamed mucous membranes.

Of the natural colouring matters, the anthraquinones command attention. Anthraquinones have laxative properties and compounds such as chrysophanic acid have pronounced bactericidal properties and have been widely used for the treatment of many skin diseases such as psoriasis, herpes tonsurans, pityriasis versicolor, eczyma marginatum and erthrasina²⁶ The anthraquinones rhein, emodin and chrysophanic acid are all cathartics.²⁷ The flavonoid glycoside rutin decreases capillary fragility encountered in patients with hypertension, diabetes mellitus or hereditary telangiectasia. Its aglycone quercetin is even more effective in correcting capillary fault than rutin. Hesperidin, when taken with ascorbic acid (vitamin C), decreases the number of bruises suffered by athletes and quickens healing. Ascorbic acid itself is a noted antiscorbutic (preventing scurvy), while benzophenones, coumarins, e.g. esculetin, and phloroglucinol all find medicinal use.

A number of natural products with diverse structures have antitumour activity. Active compounds isolated from higher plants include acyclic tertiary amines (e.g. from Solanum sp.), pyrrolizidine, phenanthroindolizidine, phenanthraquinolizidine, dimeric tetrahydroisoquinoline, and dimeric indole alkaloids. They also include heterocyclic bases such as the acridones, pyridocarbazoles (e.g. from Bleekeria spp.) and the camptothecins, and amides such as those in Narcissus bulbs. Colchicine from the autumn crocus is a well-known mitotic poison, while aristolochic acid from Aristolochia indica is a nitro compound which inhibits tumours. Highly oxygenated compounds with epoxide and/or lactone groups such as crotepoxide from Piper species and the sesquiterpene vernolepin as well as the withanolides, all have therapeutic properties, although often of such a weak nature that they do not warrant further pharmacological study. Tumour inhibitors also include the lignan podophyllotoxin, the dicoumarin ellagic acid, quinones, quinone methides, oxidised terpenoids such as the cucubitacins, certain saponins (e.g. in Caesalpinia spp.), and some proteins. Even tannins have been shown to be responsible for the antitumour activity of crude extracts of some plants but, as yet, those examined have not shown sufficient activity to warrant preclinical pharmacology.²⁸

Antitumour activity of fatty acids has also been reported,²⁹–³⁴ several of the reports dealing with the effect of linolenic acid on cancer.³⁰–³⁵ Results indicate that the antitumour activity of the fatty acids depends on the length of the carbon chain and the degree and position of unsaturation. Derivatives of fatty acids have been tested for activity against Ehrlich ascites tumour; monoolein and monolinolein proving to be active.³⁶

The essential nature of vitamins is well known, while acetylcholine, present in a number of plants, is a cardiac depressant and an effective vasodilator. Histidine is used for the treatment of peptic ulcers and intestinal ulcerations.

Other uses for specific plant constituents are dealt with under the heading ‘Chemistry’ for each species.

General observations

Some general observations emerge from the compilation of Fijian medicinal plants. Almost all plants are used for treating more than one ailment, some of them for many. Most frequently, it is the leaves or the bark which are used and almost without exception the leaves must be freshly picked. Seeds and roots are sometimes used, but flowers and fruit have much more restricted use. Of the several methods which can be used for preparing plant material for medicinal use, a decoction in which the part is boiled in water, often for 15–30 minutes, before straining, is the most popular. For a stronger extract, and particularly in the case of bark or roots, the material is crushed or powdered before treatment. Sometimes a cold water decoction is prepared by soaking the material for a given period. Occasionally, an infusion is recommended in which boiling water is poured onto the fresh or dried material. The mixture is then allowed to draw as in tea-making, and the solid matter is strained out. The epidermis which surrounds the base of the coconut leaf is sometimes used as the strainer. In many cases the leaves are chewed or crushed and applied as a poultice. Liniments or ointments are usually prepared by mixing the powdered material with coconut oil or as a paste by mixing the crushed material with a small amount of water.

Often, the term ‘fracture’ appears in a given recipe. In most cases, this means bruising either internal or external, and should not be confused with broken limbs.

References

1.   Brooker, S.G., Cambie, R.C., and Cooper, R.C., New Zealand medicinal plants, Heinemann Publishing Co., New Zealand, 1987, 268 pp.

2.   Brownlie, G., ‘The Pteridophyte Flora of Fiji’, in Beihefte zur Nova Hedwigia, vol. 55 (ed. J. Cramer), A.R. Gantner Verlag KG, Germany, 1977, 397 pp.

3.   Smith, A.C., Flora Vitiensis nova, vol. 1, Pacific Tropical Botanical Garden, Lawai, Kauai, Hawaii, 1979, 495 pp.

4.   Smith, A.C., Flora Vitiensis nova, vol. 2, Pacific Tropical Botanical Garden, Lawai, Kauai, Hawaii, 1981, 810 pp; vol. 3, 1985, 758 pp; vol. 4, 1988, 377 pp.

5.   Parham, J.W., Plants of the Fiji Islands, revised edn. Government Printer, Suva, 1972, 462 pp.

6.   Seemann, B., Flora Vitiensis: a description of plants of the Viti or Fiji Islands with an account of their history, uses and properties. L. Reeve & Co., London, 1865–73, 453 pp. with 100 plates by W. Fitch.

7.   Kurisaquila, A., The Fiji Times, 1983, Wed. 10 August.

8.   Siwatibau, S., The University of the South Pacific Bulletin, 1983, 16, 2.

9.   Singh, Y.N., Chaudhary, T.R., Rao, D., and Chand, B.C., Traditional medicine in Fiji – some herbal folk cures by Fijian Indians, A report to the Commonwealth Secretariat, London, England, 1984.

10. Lal, B.V., Journal of Pacific History, Monograph no. 2, Canberra, Australia, 1983.

11. Seemann, B., Viti: an account of a Government Mission to the Vitian or Fijian Islands in the years 1860–1861, McMilland & Co., Cambridge, 1862, 447 pp.

12. Rougier, E., Transactions Fijian Society, 1923, 13; 1924, 4 (taken from Bulletin Societé d’Etudes Oceaniennes, 1923, 7, 21; 1923, 8, 5; 1924, 9, 3).

13. Spencer, D.M., Disease, religion and society in the Fiji Islands, Univ. Washington Press, Seattle, 1966 (2nd printing). 82 pp.

14. Parham, H.B.R., ‘Fiji native plants with their medicinal and other uses’ (Polynes. Soc. Mem. 16), The Polynesian Society, Wellington, NZ, 1943, 160 pp.

15. Weiner, M.A., Economic Botany, 1970, 24, 279; Secrets of Fijian medicine, publisher unstated, 1984, 141 pp.

16. Zepernick. B., Arzneipflanzen der polynesier, Verlag von Dietrich Reimer, Berlin, 1972, 307 pp.

17. Perry, L.M., Medicinal plants of East and South East Asia, MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1980, 620 pp.

18. Singh, A., ‘Medicinal plants in Fiji and other South Pacific Islands’, unpublished manuscript. School of Natural Resources, Univ. South Pacific, 65 pp.

19. Singh, A., and Siwatibau, S., Unpublished lecture, WHO Seminar, Tokyo, Sept., 1977.

20. Raruvu, A., Vaka i Taukei. The Fijian way of life, Univ. South Pacific Press, 1983, 130 pp.

21. Blyth, D., Glasgow Medicinal Journal, 1887, 28, 176.

22. McDonald, W.H., Transactions Fijian Society, 1959, 7. 63.

23. Derrick, R.A., Transactions Fijian Society, 1955, 3, 3.

24. Cribb, A.B., and Cribb, J.W., Wild medicine in Australia, Collins, Sydney, 1981, 228 pp.

25. Tscheche, R., Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry, Springer Verlag, Berlin, 1971, p. 274.

26. Hager’s Handbuch der pharmazentischen praxis, J. Springer Verlag, Berlin, 1930.

27. Smythies, J.R., Progress in Drug Research, 1979, 23, 63

28. Jewers, K., Manchanda, A.H., and Rose, H.M., Progress in Medicinal Chemistry, 1972, 9, part 1, p. 1.

29. Ito, H., Kasama, K., Naruse, S., and Shimura, K., Cancer Letters, 1982, 17, 197.

30. Botha, J.H., Robinson. K.M., and Leary, W.P., South African Medical Journal, 1983, 64, 11.

31. Dippenaar. N.G., Booyens, J., Fabbri, D., and Katzeff, I.E., South African Medical Journal, 1982, 62, 505.

32. Dippenaar, N.G., Booyens, J., Fabbri, D., Engelbrecht, P., and Katzeff, I.E., South African Medical Journal, 1982, 62, 683.

33. Leary, W.P., Robinson, K.M., Booyens, J., and Dippenaar, N.G., South African Medical Journal, 1982, 62, 681.

34. Bogoslovskaia, E.P., Kagan, V.E., Gluschchenko, N.N., Erokhin, V.N., and Kozlov, l.uP, Izvestiya Akademii Nauk. SSSR(Biol), 1976, 734.

35. Bogoslovskaia, E.P., Izvestiya Akademii Nauk SSSR(Biol), 1976, 441.

36. Kato. A, Ando. K., Tamura, G., and Arima, K., Journal of Antibiotics (Tokyo), 1969, 22, 77.

Ferns and fern allies

Acrostichum aureum L.

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Family

Adiantaceae

Fijian names

Boreti, boresi, babasaga, caca

Botanical notes

A large, coarse pantropical fern, up to 3 m high which grows mainly in mangrove or brackish swamps. It has pinnate fronds with alternate, stalked, leathery, oblong pinnae up to 40 cm long by 9 cm wide. The fertile pinnae are confined to, and cover, the upper part of the frond giving it a golden brown colour. The young fronds are edible when boiled.

Medicinal use

The mature fronds are reputed to have value as a cure for constipation or a costive state of the bowels.¹ A decoction of the chewed roots and leaves is drunk or sniffed² as a remedy for fever, soreness in the throat and lungs, chest pains and sinus trouble.³ The fronds or nodules are said to be used during pregnancy⁴ and the plant is also reported to be used for the treatment of elephantiasis.⁵

The fern is used medicinally in Malaysia,⁶ the Philippines⁶ and New Caledonia.⁷

Chemistry

The stems and leaves contain β-sitosterol, a compound C20H42O (m.p. 94°C), the alkaloid arginine, flavonoids, and the sugars glucose, fructose and sucrose.⁸ Phenolics are produced in culture growths of the plant,⁹ and the leaves and stems have antimicrobial activity.¹⁰

References

1.   Parham, H.B.R., ‘Fiji native plants with their medicinal and other uses’ (Polynes. Soc. Mem. 16), The Polynesian Society, Wellington, NZ, 1943, 160 pp.

2.   Parham, J.W., Plants of the Fiji Islands, revised edn, Government Printer, Suva, 1972, 462 pp.

3.   Buchanan, R., Field notes, personal communication, 1983.

4.   Zepernick, B., Arzneipflanzen der polynesier, Verlag von Dietrich Reimer, Berlin, 1972, 307 pp.

5.   Jogia, M., Unpublished lecture, Waigani Seminar, Papua New Guinea, 2–9 Sept., 1984.

6.   Perry, L.M., Medicinal plants of East and South East Asia, MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1980, 620 pp.

7.   Goldie, M.W., ‘Polynesian medical researches’, unpublished thesis, Edinburgh, 1899, 4 vols, Auckland Public Library.

8.   Srivastava, S.N., Bhakuni, D.S., and Sharma, V.N., Indian Journal of Chemistry, 1963, 1, 499.

9.   Padhya, M.A., Kishore, P.B.K., and Mehta, A.R., Current Science (India), 1981, 50, 594 (C.A. 1981, 95, 76990).

10. Singh, A., ‘Medicinal plants in Fiji and other South Pacific Islands’, unpublished manuscript, School of Natural Resources, Univ. South Pacific, 1981, 65 pp.

Cheilanthes tenuifolia (Burm.) Swartz

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Family

Adiantaceae

Fijian name

Lovatu

Botanical notes

A small fern with a creeping rhizome and tripinnate fronds up to 60 cm long and 12 cm wide, which are carried on a long, grooved leaf stem. The sori are on separate fronds, near the margin of the pinnae. It is often found growing on rocks and is confined to dry zones or exposed steep sites in high rainfall areas.

Medicinal use

A tea made from the fern is reputed to be used for children’s stomach troubles.¹

Chemistry

The fern contains the ecdysones cheilanthone A (7,8-dihydroecdysone) and cheilanthone B (25-desoxy-7, 8-dihydroecdysone).²

References

1.   Parham, H.B.R., ‘Fiji native plants with their medicinal and other uses’ (Polynes. Soc. Mem. 16), The Polynesian Society, Wellington, NZ, 1943, 160 pp.

2.   Faux, A., Galbraith, M.N., Horn, D.H.S., Middleton, E.J., and Thomson, J.A., Journal of Chemical Society D, 1970, 243.

Pteris ensiformis Burm. [syn. P. crenata Sw.]

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Family

Adiantaceae

Fijian name

Qato

Botanical notes

A terrestrial fern with a creeping rhizome which is found at all altitudes especially in forests in drier regions and open sites in wetter regions. The fertile and sterile fronds are pinnate, up to 60 cm long, and differ in structure. The sori are continuous on the larger fertile pinnae.

Medicinal use

In the Bua Province the young shoots are chewed and held in the mouth as a ‘splendid cure’ for toothache.¹

The fern is used medicinally in China, Malaysia, the Philippines and the Solomon Islands.²

Chemistry

The active principle of the leaves has been used in China to treat bacillary dysentery with no side effects or toxic reaction.³

References

1.   Parham, H.B.R., ‘Fiji native