The Handbook of Secondary Gifted Education

(2001).

I PART

Sidney M. Moon

On Being Gifted and Adolescent

An Overview

Historically, much of the research in the field of gifted education has focused on young children, and only a handful of researchers have addressed the needs and characteristics of gifted adolescents. Since the publication of the first edition of The Handbook of Secondary Gifted Education, several trends have turned attention toward gifted adolescents: (a) increased national interest in specialized schools for talented students; (b) mounting evidence from longitudinal studies that characteristics of gifted adolescents predict career paths; and (c) increased competition for high school talent at top colleges and universities.

For gifted students, adolescence is both a time of great potential and special vulnerability. Being gifted and adolescent isn’t easy for many reasons. These students must cope with the normal developmental issues of adolescence and with being different because of their giftedness. Some face intense pressure from peers to deny their abilities. Often they do not have the opportunities they need to develop their abilities into demonstrated talents, either because their school does not have the resources to provide advanced coursework in core subject areas, such as physics or British literature, or because they are talented in an area not emphasized in most secondary schools, such as engineering or art.

The first part of the second edition of The Handbook of Secondary Gifted Education focuses on the nature of gifted adolescents—their characteristics, needs, and individual differences. Those characteristics and needs form the foundation for the talent development services that are provided at the secondary level. All of the chapters in Part I have been substantially revised and updated for the second edition. Most of the chapters have some new authors and/or take a new approach to the topic. Part I has three purposes:

to discuss the relevance of historical conceptions of giftedness and models of gifted programming to the adolescent period and provide a comprehensive framework that schools can use to develop gifted programs at the secondary level (Chapter 1),

to highlight important general developmental themes affecting all high-ability adolescents (Chapters 2–3), and

to illuminate the ways in which individual differences can influence the development of gifted and talented adolescents (Chapters 4–7).

In Chapter 1, Moon and Dixon review historical conceptions of giftedness in the published work of five major theorists in the field of gifted, creative, and talented studies: Renzulli, Gagné, Feldhusen, Betts, and Sternberg. They conclude that all of these theorists have something to offer secondary gifted education, but none of them provides a sufficiently comprehensive framework to address all of the needs and characteristics of high-ability adolescents. Hence, they propose a more comprehensive framework for secondary gifted education that builds on existing conceptions of giftedness and suggest that secondary gifted education should place as much stress on personal and social development among high-ability adolescents as it does on academic and cognitive development.

The next two chapters illuminate some of the reasons for Moon and Dixon’s stress on personal and social development. Hall and Kelly’s Chapter 2 on identity and career development highlights the importance of identity issues for adolescents and some of the unique identity issues facing gifted adolescents. They summarize general theories of identity development and show how those theories relate to gifted adolescents; in addition, they highlight identity development research conducted by scholars in gifted education. They argue that career development is essential in secondary school and needs to be differentiated for gifted adolescents. Because career development is based on interests, secondary gifted educators need to assess the emerging interests of their students and help them understand how those interests can be translated into meaningful careers.

Peterson, Assouline, and Jen’s chapter (Chapter 3) on social-emotional development stresses the importance of contextual factors such as family and culture in adolescent development. Because teen culture often emphasizes conformity, adolescence can be a difficult time for high-ability youth, especially those whose talents lie in the academic areas. Peterson and coauthors summarize research on two conflicting perspectives on social-emotional development among high-ability youth and provide an overview of some of the developmental challenges faced by many talented adolescents. Finally, they provide quite specific guidance for counselors working with gifted teens.

The final four chapters in Part I address individual differences within the gifted and talented population. It is important for secondary educators to be aware that gifted and talented students are not a homogeneous population. During adolescence, the interests of high-ability youth become increasingly well defined, their talents more and more specialized, and their levels of expertise increasingly differentiated. In addition, factors such as gender (Chapter 4), ethnicity (Chapter 5), disabilities (Chapter 6), and differences in motivational profiles (Chapter 7) can influence their cognitive, personal, and social development. Hence, secondary gifted educators need to be aware of these individual difference factors and the ways they can influence development among high-ability youth.

Reis and Gaesser’s Chapter 4 on gender issues again stresses the importance of identity development in adolescence. Gender influences every aspect of the developmental tasks of talented adolescents. For example, researchers have found that gender influences students’ personality type, self-concepts, performance on standardized tests, postsecondary planning, and long-term integration of career and family. Reis and Gaesser provide numerous strategies for parents, counselors, and teachers to use in preventing gender stereotypes from inhibiting the development of high-ability adolescents, encouraging healthy gender role identities, and ensuring positive transitions through adolescence for all high-ability youth.

Stereotypes are also an issue for high-ability youth from ethnically diverse populations. In Chapter 5, Worrell provides a careful and comprehensive review of the literature on diverse groups of high-ability students. First, he reviews studies focused on single populations (e.g. African Americans, Asian Americans, Hispanic Americans, and Native Americans). Then, he looks at studies that included multiple ethnicities to summarize what we know about the differences among them in terms of broad constructs like self-perceptions, aspirations, educational skills, and achievement. As in many of the other chapters in this part, Worrell stresses the importance of identity development. For diverse students, identity development is quite complex because in addition to incorporating issues addressed by other high-ability students, diverse students must also wrestle with their cultural identity. The way that they develop their cultural identities can have dramatic implications for both academic achievement and well-being. Hence, personal, social, and cognitive issues are especially tightly woven in diverse populations of gifted students.

The presence of some type of disability can create challenging individual differences among gifted adolescents of all ethnicities. In Chapter 6, two scholars who are experts on the needs and characteristics of twice-exceptional students, Baum and Rizza, team with a twice-exceptional college student, Sara Renzulli, to provide a poignant summary of the unique challenges faced by these special individuals. The chapter authors define twice-exceptional adolescents as students with coexisting talents and deficits. These students have strengths in specific areas combined with deficits in learning, paying attention, or meeting social and emotional expectations that can impede their overall development. For example, a student who is talented in computer programming but has a concurrent attention deficit disorder would be a twice-exceptional student. Chapter 6 describes the characteristics of these students and provides suggestions on how educators can differentiate curricula for them and support their social-emotional development. Woven throughout the chapter is Sara’s story—the school experiences of one highly gifted adolescent with a learning disability who eventually learned to focus on her strengths and compensate for her weaknesses so she could succeed in college and life.

The final chapter in Part I focuses on motivation, a neglected area of individual differences in talented adolescents. Most conceptions of giftedness suggest motivation becomes increasingly important as gifted individuals mature and develop their talents (see Chapter 1). In Chapter 7, Patrick, Gentry, Moss, and McIntosh summarize research with gifted students on the impact of individual differences in selected motivational constructs on student achievement and well-being. They describe the influence of beliefs that explain motivation, beliefs about the value of activities or subjects, and reasons for engaging in activities (e.g. goal orientations). The authors of Chapter 7 also provide guidance on how educators can promote adaptive motivational beliefs and behaviors in all gifted adolescents.

In conclusion, Part I provides the foundation for the second edition of The Handbook of Secondary Gifted Education by focusing attention on the unique characteristics and needs of gifted students in the adolescent period of development. Together, the chapters in Part I suggest that gifted adolescents need interventions that help them develop personally and socially, as well as academically. Perhaps the most important nonacademic, developmental issue that gifted students must address in adolescence is identity development. Part I suggests that individual difference variables such as gender, race, and motivational style lend great complexity to the process of identity development among gifted adolescents. Educators and counselors need to forge strong partnerships to ensure that all of the developmental needs of gifted adolescents are met in secondary schools, and that these students have every opportunity to achieve at high levels in college and beyond.

Chapter 1

Sidney M. Moon & Felicia A. Dixon

Conceptions of Giftedness in Adolescence

Adolescence happens to gifted middle and high school students, just as it does to their nongifted peers. In fact, the adolescent period may be more prolonged among high-ability youth, because their career goals may require a longer period of economic dependency during advanced schooling. How well do the conceptions of giftedness previously developed in the field of gifted education pertain to the adolescent years? Do we need conceptions of giftedness that focus specifically on adolescents? In this chapter, we provide a brief overview of the developmental tasks of adolescence. Then we review some of the conceptions of giftedness that have been developed by leaders in the field of gifted education and analyze their relevance to gifted adolescents. Finally, we offer a framework for gifted education at the secondary level that focuses on the developmental tasks facing high-ability students during the adolescent period.

Adolescence

Steinberg (2014) defines adolescence as a period of transitions—biological, psychological, social, and economic. Although once thought to encompass just the teenage years, the adolescent period now has been lengthened considerably; both because young people mature earlier physically, and because so many individuals delay entering into work and marriage until their mid-20s. Often, social scientists refer to the stages of this important period as early adolescence (from about age 10–13), middle adolescence (ages 14–17), and finally, late adolescence (ages 18–22). These terms seem to correspond with the school grades into which these youth fit—middle school, high school, and college. As noted above, late adolescence can extend into the mid to late 20s for youth who are pursuing careers with prolonged training, such as medicine, law, and science.

Pipher (1994) described adolescents as travelers, far from home with no native land, neither children nor adults. They are jet setters who fly from one country to another with amazing speed. Sometimes they are 4-years-old; an hour later they are 25. They don’t really fit anywhere. They yearn for a place, a search for solid ground. Adolescence is a time of intense preoccupation with the self, which is growing and changing daily. Everything feels new.

Hill (1983) suggested a framework that is still used for studying the adolescent period. Hill described this period as being composed of three distinct components: the fundamental changes of adolescence, the contexts of adolescence, and the psychosocial developments of adolescence. The fundamental changes of adolescence also include three elements: the onset of puberty (biological), the emergence of more advanced thinking abilities (cognitive), and the transition into new roles in society (social). These fundamental changes are universal in that all adolescents in all cultures go through them. Gifted adolescents, however, will normally progress through these changes in a different sequence from their more average-ability peers. For example, advanced thinking abilities emerge earlier in gifted students and, as noted above, transitions into new societal roles may be delayed. Families, peers, schools, work, and leisure activities provide the contexts in which adolescents spend their time. Research suggests that families, peers, and schools all have a strong influence on the extent to which gifted adolescents remain committed to the talent development process (Csikszentmihalyi, Rathunde, & Whalen, 1993; Steinberg, 1996). Finally, psychosocial development includes such important dimensions as identity, autonomy, intimacy, sexuality, achievement, and the problems that arise within these areas. Adolescents are growing at rapid rates in many areas of life simultaneously. There is, perhaps, no period of the lifespan more developmentally complex than adolescence, and high-ability adolescents have extra layers of complexity to navigate because of their giftedness.

Conceptions of Giftedness

How well do the conceptions of giftedness that have been developed in the field of gifted education pertain to the adolescent years? To answer this question, we provide brief descriptions of the evolving conceptions of giftedness of five theorists who have helped shape the field of gifted education: Renzulli, Gagné, Feldhusen, Betts, and Sternberg. The conceptions reviewed are Renzulli’s Triad Model; Gagné’s Differentiated Model of Giftedness and Talent (DMGT); Feldhusen’s Purdue Secondary Model; Betts’ Autonomous Learner Model; and Sternberg’s Wisdom Intelligence and Creative Synthesized (WICS) model. We provide a brief description of each conception of giftedness and related educational programming. Then, we analyze strengths and weaknesses of the conception as a guide for working with high-ability adolescents and developing gifted education services at the secondary level. There are many other valuable conceptions of giftedness that are not reviewed here because of space limitations (see Gardner, 1983; Jarvin & Subotnik, this edition; Ziegler & Heller, 2000).

Renzulli’s Triad Model

One of the most familiar conceptions of giftedness in education today was originally proposed by Renzulli (1978) and called the Enrichment Triad Model. Renzulli conceptualized giftedness as having three clusters of traits: above-average ability, task commitment, and creativity. These traits were selected because prior research suggested they were necessary for high levels of creative productivity and/or eminence in adults. The Triad Model has also been called the Three-Ring Conception of Giftedness because Renzulli depicted his model as three overlapping circles, with each circle representing one of the three traits. Giftedness was defined as the area of overlap. In other words, giftedness is the co-occurrence of above-average ability, creativity, and task commitment as applied to a specific project or subject area.

The Secondary Triad Model (Reis & Renzulli, 1986, 1989) was designed to implement the Enrichment Triad Model at the secondary level. Implementation of the model begins with the formation of an interdisciplinary planning team including faculty members who volunteer to participate from each of the major academic areas. The team meets on a regular basis and is responsible for planning and organizing the program goals and activities, curricular compacting options, and schoolwide enrichment opportunities. Prior to identifying students, the team must develop an array of enrichment services Once the services are in place, the team then identifies a talent pool of students representing the top 15%–20% of the general population in either general ability areas or more specific areas of ability, such as social studies or mathematics. After the students are selected, they are introduced to the services available to them. These services may include comprehensive assessment of student interests and learning styles, which can later be used to plan additional services related to student interests, as well as to guide students to expand their interests and learning styles. Identified students participate in enrichment activities, either on a pull-out basis or through special talent pool classes. Eventually, they become investigators of real problems using the methods of inquiry utilized by professionals in their field of interest.

The talent pool classes can be general classes focused on group training activities, or they can be discipline-specific classes structured around the Enrichment Triad Model. In the discipline-specific classes, students enrolled in a talent pool history or science class participate in Type I activities such as field trips and teacher-led discussions, Type II activities such as developing research skills or learning the scientific method, and a culminating Type III activity that involves them in an independent investigation using the tools of inquiry they developed during Type II experiences. Hence, at the secondary level, the Enrichment Triad Model can become a curriculum framework for the development of secondary classes that emphasize the development of creative productivity.

Relative to middle schools, Renzulli (2000, 2001) proposed the establishment of Academies of Inquiry and Talent Development. Using enrichment clusters as the mode of delivery, students and teachers select the clusters in which they participate so that all students and teachers are involved. In addition, all activity is directed toward the production of a product or service, and authentic methods of professional investigators are used to pursue both the product and the service development. No predetermined lesson or unit plans govern these academies, so that the interests of the participants are truly pursued. Therefore, all students are not doing the same thing at the same time. Specially designated time blocks are established and rules of regular schooling are suspended in order for these academies to work.

In his most recent work, Renzulli expanded his conception of giftedness to include what he calls cocognitive characteristics that facilitate creative productivity (Renzulli, 2005). Through a review of the literature, Renzulli and his colleagues identified several cocognitive factors—such as optimism, courage, passion, empathy, energy, and destiny—that facilitate talent development and creative productivity. He believes gifted programs in secondary schools should develop these cocognitive factors in addition to the more traditional academic talents. In addition, he believes schools have a moral obligation to develop social capital by encouraging gifted students to become leaders who use their talents to enhance society. Gifted programs succeed to the extent that they develop gifted individuals who will place human concerns and the common good above material gain, ego enhancement, and self-indulgence.

Comments on Renzulli’s Conceptions of Gifted Adolescents

The Enrichment Triad Model of giftedness has many strengths. It is empirically based because it was developed after an extensive study of the traits of eminent adults from a wide variety of fields. In its original presentation, it was very easy to understand because it included only three components: above-average ability, creativity, and task commitment. The Enrichment Triad Model is inclusive, especially compared to older models that set the threshold for giftedness as a score more than two standard deviations above the mean on an individual intelligence test (Terman, 1925). The typical IQ cut-off score conception of giftedness identifies only 1%–2% of the population as gifted. The Enrichment Triad Model, on the other hand, opens the doors to gifted education to every student and actively serves at least 25%–30% of the students in a school.

One of the greatest strengths of the Triad model is that it has led to very specific guidance for educational programming to foster creative productivity that spans the school years and moves into adulthood. It offers more concrete guidance than most models about how to find gifted adolescents by learning what behaviors they exhibit and developing their talents with programming that matches those traits. In offering enrichment activities that bring about creativity and productivity, the Academies of Inquiry and Talent Development and the Secondary Triad Model meet the needs of gifted adolescents who like working on self-directed projects. The Secondary Triad Model is an especially effective model for secondary students who know they have a specific talent—such as writers, scientists, artists, or actors—and want to pursue projects that further their interests. Its emphasis on exposure to a wide variety of topics, followed by independent learning of a self-selected topic is developmentally appropriate for middle school gifted students. In high school, this model can be very helpful for focused students with a project they would like to complete. In addition, the types of instructional activities recommended in the Triad model are very effective indirect methods of developing personal talent (Moon, 2003a; 2003b), and the development of personal talent is an important task for high-ability adolescents.

Weaknesses of the Triad Model for the secondary environment include numerous feasibility problems, especially if it is implemented through a resource room approach, with students being pulled out of regular classes in order to participate in enrichment activities. The resource room model does not map well on the structure of most secondary schools. In addition, the basic model is domain general, and most secondary schools offer domain-specific curricula. This has been addressed to some extent in the Secondary Triad Model because that model recommends developing discipline-specific classes for students in the selected talent pool. However, it may be difficult to offer all of the content students need to meet state standards through talent pool classes, and it may be hard for school districts to offer talent pool classes in every subject area due to resource constraints. The Triad Model may be a better model for students in the early, exploratory stages of talent development than for those in the middle stages (Bloom, 1985). However, many gifted adolescents are ready for middle years interventions. The academic rigor and accelerative content of domain-specific honors or Advanced Placement classes may be a better fit for students with academic talent development at the secondary level who are in the middle stage of talent development. Finally, the Triad Model focuses on developing creative productivity; however, some gifted students lack creative or productive interests and talents. The model may not be as good a fit for students who desire to be competent professionals in fields like law, business, or medicine as it is for those who want to be groundbreaking scientists or Pulitzer prize novelists. In other words, the Triad conception of giftedness is somewhat narrow for gifted adolescents because it defines giftedness in terms of creative productivity, and not all adolescents will be interested in developing creative and productive talents.

Operation Houndstooth has not yet been specifically operationalized in school settings. However, it does have implications for secondary schools. It suggests, for example, that gifted education needs to help gifted students develop attributes like courage and optimism, as well as expertise in subjects like mathematics. One way to do this would be to study biographies of individuals who exemplify one or more of the houndstooth attributes, such as Jack London, or who devoted their lives to improve society, such as Mother Theresa. It also suggests that service learning activities should be integrated into secondary gifted education to help students develop an orientation toward community service. Because service learning offers opportunities to extend the learning context in an authentic manner, it is a good way for gifted adolescents to synthesize experiences. Finally, it suggests gifted education programs at the secondary level include character education and discussion of moral dilemmas facing high-ability individuals in their curricula. Like the original Triad Model, Operation Houndstooth has the limitation of a priori definitions of desired outcomes for gifted adolescents. It will be a better fit for gifted adolescents who want to develop leadership talent than for those who want to be pure academians.

Gagné’s Differentiated Model of Giftedness and Talent

The Differentiated Model of Giftedness and Talent (DMGT; Gagné 1985, 2000; Gagné & Van Rossum, this edition) is a developmental model of giftedness that distinguishes between giftedness and talent. The model was originally presented in 1985 and has been refined by Gagné in subsequent years. Here we will emphasize the version of the model published in the International Handbook of Giftedness and Talent (Heller, Mönks, Sternberg, & Subotnik, 2002).

Giftedness is defined in the DMGT as natural human abilities or aptitudes. A gifted individual possesses gifts or talents that place him or her within the top 10% of his or her same-aged peers. Gagné proposed that giftedness corresponds to superior performance in one or more human aptitude domains such as intellectual, creative, socio-affective, or sensorimotor. Aptitudes are conceptualized as partially controlled by genetic endowment. They are natural abilities, and are easier to observe in very young children who have had limited exposure to environmental influences and systematic learning experiences. In older children, aptitudes are best demonstrated by the ease and speed with which individuals acquire new knowledge and skills. Talent, on the other hand, represents high-level mastery of knowledge and skills in one or more fields of human activity, including the arts, business, caring services, communication, science and technology, and sports. Talents emerge gradually over time, as the outcome of a long-term, systematic learning process. Talents emerge from aptitudes, but are more diverse and specific than aptitudes. For example, a small child with high intellectual aptitude, as measured by a traditional intelligence test, might eventually become a talented experimental physicist, history professor, or novelist.

In the DMGT, long periods of practice and training are essential for developing human aptitudes into talents. Through maturation, informal learning (i.e., those everyday tasks that shape acquired knowledge and skills), formal out-of-school learning (i.e., self-taught tasks engaged in during leisure time), and formal in-school learning, a complex, developmental process takes place that can gradually convert raw, natural aptitudes into very specific talents in areas like science and the arts.

Two categories of catalysts assist the developmental process of converting aptitudes to talents—intrapersonal and environmental. The catalysts are conceptualized as factors that either inhibit or assist the talent development process. There are five types of intrapersonal catalysts in Gagné’s model: physical characteristics, motivation, volition, self-management, and personality. Physical characteristics include things like a person’s health. Motivation and volition are psychological characteristics that help individuals set appropriate goals and persist toward those goals in the face of obstacles. Motivation is defined in the DMGT as an individual’s needs, interests, and values—things that influence whether a person will initiate the process of talent development. Volition is defined as willpower, effort, and persistence. Volition enables a person to continue to strive toward his or her goals over long periods of time and to overcome setbacks on the journey. Together these two factors are very similar to task commitment, a major component of the Triad model’s conceptualization of giftedness. Self-management is a related meta-construct that helps the individual structure and coordinate the talent development process. Finally, Gagné believes that an individual’s personality has a strong influence on talent development, serving either to accelerate, slow down, or block learning processes.

There are four categories of environmental catalysts in the DMGT: milieu, persons, provisions, and events. Milieu includes various surrounding issues that influence individuals like culture, geography, family, and socio-economic status. For adolescents, the persons catalyst would include parents and other family members, teachers, coaches, and peers, among others. Provisions are where schools come into Gagné’s model most closely. Schools are one of the major providers of systematic learning experiences that can either enhance or hinder the talent development process. Finally, Gagné notes that events such as accidents and receiving awards can exert an influence on talent development trajectories.

The final component of the DMGT is chance (Gagné, 2000). In fact, Gagné believes chance may play the greatest role of all, because it influences heritable characteristics such as aptitudes and personality traits, the opportunities available to persons to develop their talents over their lifetime, and random events, such as accidents, all of which impact the long-term talent development process. Chance is especially important in athletic talent development, where inherited physical characteristics and accidents both play a large part in the talent development process (Van Rossum & Gagné, this edition). Chance was also a major component in an earlier conceptualization of giftedness developed by Tannenbaum (1983, 1986).

Comments on the DMGT and Gifted Adolescents

Gagné’s theory has direct relevance for the period of adolescence because it is developmental. His theory proposes that maturation and systematic learning experiences convert abilities to more developed talents. School, out-of-school experiences such as academic summer camps, and extracurricular activities provide catalysts for this learning and practice to take place. The theory is elegant and comprehensive. It applies to all talent areas and specifies both internal, noncognitive factors and external, environmental factors that influence whether a particular adolescent will develop his or her abilities into talents. It provides clear, operational definitions of terms that are often used interchangeably, like gifts and talents. It also addresses the issue of levels of ability, stating that the top 10% in a given aptitude area should be considered gifted and the top 10% of peers with comparable learning opportunities should be considered talented. This is a somewhat more restrictive number than would be identified with Renzulli’s approach, but still considerably more liberal than the older, IQ-based notion of giftedness.

Gagné’s theory is complex and interesting. However, its application in the classroom for secondary teachers is not refined enough to understand what this theory means to curriculum and instruction. It tells more about the students’ processes than about how to serve them. In other words, a weakness of Gagné’s theory for school settings is its lack of operationalization. It was designed as a theoretical model to provide a map of the talent development terrain and to guide research on talent development processes. Although it stresses the importance of systematic learning experiences in converting aptitudes to talents, it does not provide much specific guidance for educational programming for gifted adolescents. Gagné’s theory does have implications for educational programs in secondary schools, however. For example, his theory suggests that schools might want to identify adolescents for gifted and talented services by two methods: (a) aptitudes, to ensure that students with unrealized potential are identified; and (b) emerging talents, to ensure that students who are demonstrating high-level expertise in a particular subject area are identified regardless of test scores. It also suggests that intrapersonal characteristics of students should be assessed and developed during adolescence to facilitate the talent development process. Finally, the model provides support for the increasing specialization of teachers and subject matter common in secondary schools. Such specialization is necessary as individuals convert their aptitudes into more specific talents. It also suggests, however, that secondary schools need to pay attention to where specific students stand on the talent development continuum so that they can be placed in courses that fit their current talent profiles, and so that they may experience coursework that provides sufficient challenge to ensure learning is taking place. The talent development process is long, even when it proceeds optimally. Secondary schools can become a hindrance to academic talent development if they provide only slow-paced instruction based on minimal competency standards.

Feldhusen’s Purdue Secondary Model

Feldhusen’s (1986) conception of giftedness derived from a focus on the characteristics and needs of children who were very able learners, rather than from a focus on the characteristics of eminent or talented adults (Feldhusen & Kolloff, 1986). Characteristics such as advanced vocabulary and quick mastery of factual information give rise to basic needs such as experiencing learning activities at an appropriate level and pace that must be met by schools if these students are to develop their potential talents to the highest level (Feldhusen & Kolloff, 1986; Feldhusen & Robinson-Wyman, 1986). Feldhusen (1983) initially conceptualized giftedness as a composite of (a) general intellectual ability, (b) positive self-concept, (c) achievement motivation, and (d) talent. Feldhusen clearly distinguished the ways giftedness manifests during adolescence from the ways it manifests in adulthood. Giftedness was seen as a psychological and physical predisposition for superior learning and performance in the formative years and high-level achievement or performance in adulthood. Because predispositions require nurturing to develop into high-level achievement, Feldhusen, like Gagné, believed chance plays a large part in the development of giftedness. Schools and families are major nurturing agencies, and both may fail at the task.

Feldhusen and Robinson-Wyman (1986) applied Feldhusen’s conceptualization of giftedness to gifted adolescents. They reviewed lists of characteristics of gifted children and adolescents and found a common theme of gifted adolescents having the capacity to absorb great amounts of information readily and to transform that information in complex and creative ways (p. 156). Again, these characteristics led to needs which, in turn, gave rise to an eclectic programming model called the Purdue Secondary Model, which was designed to meet the needs of gifted adolescents in the typical secondary school environment. The needs that make up the foundation of the Purdue Secondary Model are as follows (Feldhusen & Robinson-Wyman, 1986):

1.maximum achievement of basic skills and concepts;

2.learning activities at appropriate level and pace;

3.experience in creative thinking and problem solving;

4.development of convergent abilities, especially in logical deduction and convergent problem solving;

5.stimulation of imagery, imagination, and spatial abilities;

6.development of self-awareness and acceptance of own capacities, interests, and needs;

7.stimulation to pursue higher level goals and aspirations;

8.exposure to a variety of fields of study, art, and occupations;

9.development of independence, self-direction, and discipline in learning;

10.experience relating intellectually, artistically, and affectively with other gifted, creative, and talented students;

11.a large fund of information about diverse topics; and

12.access and simulation to reading.

To meet these needs, the model included a smorgasbord of provisions for talented students, including counseling services, seminars, honors and Advanced Placement classes, acceleration opportunities, foreign languages, the arts, cultural experiences, career education, vocational programs, and extra-school instruction such as summer talent development programs. The components of this model include those that are functional (i.e., counseling, vocational programs, cultural experiences) and those that are administrative (i.e., extra-school instruction, seminars, advanced classes). A student moves through the program by developing a personal growth plan consisting of both areas of strength and those of relative weakness that need to be remedied.

The Purdue Secondary Program Model is a comprehensive model that attends to curriculum issues, growth plans for individual students, talent development in the arts and vocational areas, as well as in the intellectual forms of giftedness. The counseling services provided to gifted students are valuable to adolescents seeking guidance to make informed decisions about plans of study and career options. Specific guidance for school districts interested in implementing programming has been provided in a book called Identifying and Educating Gifted Students at the Secondary Level (Feldhusen, Hoover, & Sayler, 1990). This book also includes the Purdue Academic Rating Scales, which are behavioral checklists secondary teachers can use to identify students with emerging talents in the following academic and vocational disciplines: mathematics, science, English, social studies, foreign languages, vocational agriculture, business and office, home economics, and trade and industrial fields.

Feldhusen also used the needs of gifted adolescents as the basis for a curriculum model, called the Purdue Three-Stage Model, which is uniquely suited to the learning needs of gifted and talented students (Feldhusen, 1980a, 1980b; Moon, Kolloff, Robinson, Dixon, & Feldhusen, 2009). The Purdue Three-Stage Model recommends gifted students be grouped for instruction so they can enjoy the intellectual stimulation of high-ability peers as they experience fast-paced learning in an environment that encourages the development of creative and critical thinking skills, problem-solving skills, and independent learning skills. Moon (1993) has recommended this model for the development of courses for gifted and talented students at the secondary level. The model has been applied to the creation of a middle school seminar program (Nidiffer & Moon, 1994), an honors English sequence for verbally talented 9th–12th graders (Powley & Moon, 1993), and a science research class for scientifically talented 11th and 12th graders (Whitman & Moon, 1993). In addition, the model has been promoted as being particularly effective for adolescents with talent in the STEM disciplines (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) because it emphasizes complex problem solving and independent projects—the very types of activities professionals in the STEM disciplines utilize most often in their daily work (Moon, 2004). The Purdue Three-Stage Model is a flexible framework for a variety of program offerings at the secondary level including advanced classes, seminars, and independent learning opportunities (Moon et al., 2009).

Comments on Feldhusen’s Conceptualizations and Gifted Adolescents

Feldhusen’s (1986) conceptualization of giftedness has the advantage of being based on research describing the observed characteristics and needs of high-ability students. His list of needs can be used by secondary teachers to guide curriculum and instruction for high-ability students. Feldhusen’s work suggests that high-ability students should be grouped together for some or all of their instruction in the secondary environment in order to meet their needs for maximum achievement, appropriately paced instruction, and opportunities to interact with other gifted and talented students. His conceptualization of giftedness is directly relevant to schools. His work led to application models that can guide secondary gifted education: the Purdue Secondary Model and the Purdue Three-Stage Model. All of Feldhusen’s applied work was eclectic, modular, flexible, and pragmatic, which makes it easy to implement his models in the secondary environment. Feldhusen’s conceptualization of giftedness includes affective factors that are very important in adolescence, such as self-confidence and motivation.

The Purdue Secondary Model is comprehensive and has direct relevance for gifted adolescents as they move through school. The model was designed to fit into the existing structure of most secondary schools and can be wholly or partially implemented based on the needs and resources of a particular school district. However, it is very complex, requiring many administrative functions that necessitate specialized training. In this time of inclusion in the classroom and movement away from specialized programming, there will probably be philosophical opposition to this model in some schools and communities. That said, it is relevant to adolescence, makes pragmatic use of existing programs (i.e., AP and honors classes), and seeks to enable each individual to experience appropriate educational experiences in his or her unique talent areas. Similarly, the Purdue Three-Stage Model is a flexible approach to curriculum that can be used to guide the creation of specific course offerings in secondary gifted programs. A weakness of this model at the secondary level is its lack of domain-specificity. It is best implemented by teams that include experts in the model and experts in the talent domain, e.g. a gifted coordinator and two science teachers.

Betts’s Autonomous Learner Model

Like Feldhusen, George Betts was interested in developing a model for secondary gifted education that would work in typical public high schools. Betts’s focus was to optimize the abilities of gifted and talented learners. He called his model the Autonomous Learner Model (Betts & Kercher, 1999). His model originated at the high school level and then was expanded to include all grade levels. Hence, it has a greater focus on the needs of secondary students than some models. Because Betts’s came from a school counseling background, his model provides substantial attention to individual and personal development.

The Autonomous Learner Model has five components: orientation, individual development, enrichment, seminars, and in-depth study. During orientation, learners learn about themselves, as gifted and talented individuals, and about the structure of the program. In the individual development dimension, learners are provided with opportunities to develop the skills needed for lifelong learning. Hence, this dimension is critical to the emphasis of the model on creating autonomous learners. Intra- and interpersonal skills are deliberately developed in this component of an autonomous learner program. The enrichment dimension provides learners with opportunities to explore new areas of content. In seminars, participants work in teams to research a topic and present it to the rest of the class and/or larger audiences. Finally, the independent study dimension enables participants to pursue a topic of their choosing in greater depth, often with the assistance of a mentor. Betts and Kercher (1999) have produced a manual for implementing the Autonomous Learner Model, which provides specific guidance, including activities and lesson plans, for school personnel who are interested in the model.

Comments on Betts’s Model

Betts and Kercher (1999) developed their model in partnership with the Arvada School District in Colorado. Hence, like Feldhusen’s models, theirs is a pragmatic model that fits well into secondary school environments. However, unlike Feldhusen’s model, which can be implemented in stages or emphasizing different components and classes, Betts’s model must be implemented as a whole, because all the parts work together to create the autonomous learner. Hence, the Autonomous Learner Model requires more total school buy-in than either the Purdue Secondary Model or the Purdue Three-Stage Model.

The enrichment, seminar, and independent study dimensions of the Autonomous Learner Model are quite similar to those provided in the Schoolwide Enrichment Model (Reis & Renzulli, 2009) discussed earlier. What differentiates Betts’s model from the models discussed previously is his emphasis on incorporating attention to the affective needs of talented youth in the orientation and personal development components of the model. Betts is interested in assisting talented youth with developing skills in areas such as understanding giftedness, working effectively in teams, and self-management. In Gagné’s terms, Betts is interested in providing direct instruction in many of the intra- and interpersonal catalysts needed to turn abilities into talents. His work is consistent with the current emphasis in schools on 21st-century skills through programs such as the Partnership for 21st Century Skills and shares an emphasis on developing successful intelligence with our next theorist, Robert Sternberg.

Sternberg’s WICS Model of Giftedness

Sternberg’s (1995, 1997, 2000, 2003) conceptions of giftedness have evolved over the course of his career. He is perhaps best known for his Triarchic theory of intelligence. The Triarchic model is a trait model specifying the traits that distinguish gifted individuals. The Triarchic model states that one’s giftedness cannot be expressed by a single IQ score, but rather is better understood through three kinds of intelligence: analytic, synthetic, and practical. Analytic intelligence is that which is necessary for most school tasks and is measured well by intelligence tests, particularly analytical reasoning and reading comprehension tasks. Synthetic intelligence is expressed best in creativity, insightfulness, intuition, and coping with novelty. Sternberg states that although these people may not score the highest on intelligence tests, good synthetic thinkers may make the greatest contributions to society because of their innovative ideas. Finally, practical intelligence involves applying both analytic and synthetic skills to practical, everyday situations. When someone needs to change a tire or follow a recipe, it does not matter what score he or she received on an intelligence test if he or she cannot perform the needed task. In his early work, Sternberg viewed giftedness as a balance among the analytic, synthetic, and practical abilities in which the gifted individual is a good mental self-manager. This model of giftedness suggests that secondary schools should be identifying students who have high levels of ability in all three of these areas of intelligence combined with good self-management skills. Schools should work with these students through special programming to further develop their abilities in the subject areas where they excel.

Sternberg (2000) has also conceptualized giftedness as developing expertise. In this conceptualization, he focuses on how individuals move from novice to expert in a given human endeavor. Hence, this is a developmental model, or process model. It focuses on how giftedness develops. The developing expertise model, like Gagné’s model and the Jarvin and Subotnik model in this volume, places a great deal of emphasis on the importance of focused and reflective practice by the individual. The model suggests that several characteristics of the learner, such as learning, motivation, thinking skills, knowledge, and metacognition, all have an important role to play as an individual moves from novice to expert in a given area of study. This model also acknowledges that contextual factors, such as cultural values, influence the development of expertise. In the developing expertise model, secondary students are viewed as novices who are capable of becoming experts in one or more domains if they engage in appropriate deliberate practice to build their expertise.

Building on both the triarchic theory and the developing expertise theory, Sternberg (2003) has developed an even more comprehensive conceptualization he calls the WICS Model of Giftedness. WICS stands for Wisdom, Intelligence, and Creativity Synthesized. In WICS, Sternberg views wisdom, intelligence, and creativity as the ingredients that must be synthesized to create a gifted individual. Hence, WICS is a trait model. Intelligence in the WICS model is conceptualized as successful intelligence or the ability to achieve one’s goals in life by capitalizing on strengths and compensating for weaknesses in order to adapt to, shape, and select environments through a combination of analytical, creative, and practical abilities (Sternberg, 1996; Sternberg & Grigorenko, 2000, 2003). This is a much broader conceptualization of intelligence than IQ. It includes the three components of the triarchic theory of intelligence, but combines those abilities with skills from the personal domain, such as self-awareness and self-regulation, that enable individuals to achieve their goals in life.

Creativity is important in the WICS model for the same reason it was important in the three-ring conception of giftedness—the gifted individual in the WICS model is one who makes contributions to society and exercises effective leadership. These contributions require creativity. Sternberg believes that creative work requires applying and balancing the three intellectual abilities from the triarchic theory of intelligence—analytic, practical, and synthetic abilities. In addition, the creative individual will demonstrate the following attributes:

the ability to redefine problems,

questioning and analyzing of assumptions,

willingness to sell his or her ideas,

recognition of the importance of mastering the knowledge base in one’s field,

willingness to surmount obstacles,

willingness to take sensible risks,

tolerance of ambiguity,

self-efficacy,

love of what one is doing,

willingness to delay gratification, and

courage.

Sternberg believes that secondary schools should identify and serve students who demonstrate these attributes and work with all high-ability youth to help them become more creative, so they will be able to apply their abilities in ways that will make a true difference in the world.

The final component of giftedness in the WICS model is wisdom. Here Sternberg moves into the realm of values. Giftedness is no longer just a cognitive characteristic of individuals. Instead, the gifted individual is a highly talented person who balances self-interest with the interests of others to enhance the common good. Brilliant criminals and selfish individuals focused on accumulating material wealth are not gifted, according to WICS model. Gifted individuals are wise leaders who use their talents to enhance the welfare of others and improve society.

Comments on Sternberg’s Theories of Gifted Adolescents

Sternberg’s conceptualizations of giftedness offer several useful perspectives for secondary gifted education. The Triarchic theory is one of several broadened conceptualizations of the abilities that underlie gifted performances (see also Caroll, 1993; Gardner, 1983). It is unique in its balanced emphasis on three, relatively uncorrelated sets of abilities—analytic, synthetic, and practical. Secondary schools generally place heavy emphasis on identifying and developing analytic intelligence, while virtually ignoring synthetic and practical intelligence. Because synthetic intelligence is essential for creative productive work and practical intelligence becomes increasingly important in adult life and the later stages of talent development (Jarvin & Subotnik, this edition), the Triarchic theory suggests that secondary gifted educators should place approximately equal emphasis on these three abilities, both in identifying gifted adolescents for services and in providing educational experiences for such students.

The developing expertise theory of giftedness, like Gagné’s theory, is an excellent fit for the adolescent stage of development because adolescents are actively engaged in developing expertise in their potential talent area(s). There is a rule of thumb in the talent development literature that it takes approximately 10 years of focused, deliberate practice to become an expert. The process of becoming an expert was found by Bloom (1985) to occur in three distinct stages, which he termed early, middle, and late. Most high-ability adolescents will be in the middle stage of academic talent development. This middle stage is extremely important because it is the stage in which students become serious about a talent area and focus on mastering the skills of a particular discipline. Tremendous effort is required to complete this stage of talent development successfully. Secondary schools have the potential to be major contributors to the development of expertise if they provide challenging coursework that enables students to acquire expertise rapidly and thoroughly in academic areas where they have high levels of interest and ability.

The WICS model is more focused on desired outcomes of the talent development process than on the process itself, and so may be less helpful as a guide for secondary schools. The model provides very little guidance for how it might be applied to the secondary school environment. However, the WICS model does remind secondary gifted educators that wisdom is an important component of responsible adult lives. Giftedness is a two-edged sword because it can be applied to inspiring or reprehensible deeds. WICS asks secondary educators to consider whether their strategies to educate high-ability youth include developing awareness of important ethical issues and building the skills these students will need to make wise decisions for their lives and the lives of those for whom they are responsible. The WICS model may be a particularly useful framework for secondary talent development programs focused on developing leadership talent. The type of giftedness embodied in WICS (i.e., a balanced combination of intelligence, creativity, and wisdom) is especially crucial for leaders.

A Holistic, Developmental Framework

As our brief, illustrative review has demonstrated, conceptions of giftedness and models for gifted education have various emphases. Some were developed to identify and explain the characteristics of gifted adults so that we could try to develop those characteristics in children (Renzulli, 1978). Others were developed to explain the talent development process (Bloom, 1985; Gagné, 1985, 2000; Jarvin & Subotnik, this edition; Sternberg, 2000). Some theories focus on specifying the traits that lead us to identify individuals as gifted, such as Terman’s high IQ theory (1925), Sternberg’s Triarchic theory (1997), and Gardner’s (1983) theory of multiple intelligences. Other theories are more pragmatic, focusing on identifying the characteristics of learners that suggest a need for more advanced educational experiences in schools in order to prevent the harm that can occur through inappropriate school placement and enable high-ability learners to develop their talents (Feldhusen, 1983, 1995—see also, Peters, Matthews, McBee, & McCoach, 2014). The outcomes promoted by the various conceptions of giftedness vary from high levels of demonstrated talent (Gagné, 2000; Sternberg, 2000; Wai, this edition), to creative productivity (Jarvin & Subotnik, this edition; Renzulli 1978), to optimizing abilities (Betts & Kercher, 1999), to social capital and wise leadership (Renzulli, 2005; Sternberg, 2003). However, none of the existing conceptualizations of giftedness focuses specifically and exclusively on academically gifted adolescents.

We would like to propose a holistic, developmental framework to guide secondary schools in developing gifted programming (see Figure 1.1). Prior to using our holistic, developmental framework, a school should develop or adopt a local definition of giftedness (for guidance on this process see Moon, 2006). Once giftedness has been defined and conceptualized in a way that is consistent with local goals and values, the framework we propose in this section can be used to focus educational services on the specific developmental needs of gifted adolescents.

Our framework is holistic because it synthesizes the characteristics of high-ability adolescents and the developmental tasks they face. It can be used to guide both identification and programming. It is designed to enable schools to help high-ability youth maximize their development during the adolescent years. It includes cognitive, personal, and social components. We describe each of these components and then discuss the implications of the holistic, developmental framework for secondary gifted education programs.

Figure 1.1. Moon and Dixon’s Conception of Adolescent Giftedness.

Cognitive Components

The academically gifted adolescent demonstrates superior cognitive abilities in his or her area(s) of giftedness. These abilities are increasingly domain specific as the adolescent matures. Hence, the relevance of general intelligence becomes less important over the course of adolescence, and specific aptitudes such as verbal or mathematical reasoning become more important. Like Gardner (1983) and Gagné (1985, 2000), we believe that individuals have profiles of aptitudes in different areas. Like Feldhusen (1995), Gagné (1985, 2000), and Sternberg (2000), we believe that aptitudes are converted to talents and expertise through a developmental process involving deliberate practice over a period of many years. In the academic talent areas, this conversion process usually coincides developmentally with adolescence. Hence, adolescence is a critical talent development period for academically gifted youth.

During adolescence, aptitudes become increasingly differentiated. Thus, a high-IQ child who appeared to be good at everything when she began elementary school will have a much more distinctive pattern of cognitive strengths and weaknesses during adolescence that can predict differences in developmental trajectories and occupational pursuits (Lubinski, Webb, Morelock, & Benbow, 2001). In other words, adolescence is a period of rapidly increasing differentiation in talent profiles, both with respect to type of talent (e.g., verbal vs. quantitative) and level of talent (e.g., number of grade levels of advancement). Academically talented adolescents have the capacity for sophisticated, adult-level cognitive processes. In Piagetian terms, they are at the highest stage of cognitive development, formal operational thought. As a result, they are capable of sophisticated critical and creative thinking. They also have the capacity to master large and complex knowledge bases relatively quickly. Often these students are dialectical thinkers (Sternberg, 1998) who recognize that most real-life problems do not have a unique solution that is correct while other solutions are incorrect. Rather than closing their minds to alternatives, they propose a thesis for the solution of the problem, consider its antithesis, and look for a synthesis that somehow integrates these two opposing and often irreconcilable points of view. To fully meet these students’ cognitive needs, educational experiences must incorporate open discussion and debate over issues relevant to each discipline (Dixon, 2006). Hence, their educational experiences should capitalize on these traits through challenging, information-rich coursework that furthers thinking and problem-solving abilities and produces independent learners who have mastered the foundations of each discipline and are beginning to be able to make original contributions to their areas of specialization.

Personal Components

Adolescence is also a time of personal growth for high-ability adolescents, especially in the area of identity (Hall & Kelly, this edition). As a result, adolescence is an ideal time for academically talented students to develop personal talent (Betts & Kercher, 1999; Moon & Hu, 2008). We believe it is crucial for academically talented adolescents to focus on the development of personal talent for two reasons. First, adolescence is a time of heightened personal decision making. As defined in this chapter, adolescence spans the period from middle school through the establishment of a career and/or a family. During that period, high-ability youth must make many crucial life decisions, such as where they will attend college, what fields they will study, what career they will pursue, and how they will balance their personal and professional lives. High-ability adolescents who have developed strong personal decision-making skills will make better decisions than those who neglect to develop these skills. Second, self-regulation skills are increasingly important in the secondary environment because students have more choices, more opportunities, and increasingly complex work to do. Third, other skills in the personal domain, such as capitalizing on strengths and compensating for weaknesses, resisting socio-cultural stereotypes, demonstrating resilience in the face of adversity, exerting high levels of effort over long periods of time, and restoring self-confidence following poor performance, become increasingly important success factors as high-ability individuals endeavor to develop very high levels of expertise (Gagné, 2000; Jarvin & Subotnik, this edition; Sternberg, 2003). Thus we believe that those high-ability youth who have strong aptitude for traditional domains such as science, social studies, or creative writing, along with low to average levels of personal competence, will have difficulty converting their high aptitudes into demonstrable talents in adulthood. These students need remedial personal talent development interventions during the secondary years that will enable them to stay on track with the process of developing their gifts into talents. Similarly, adolescents with highly developed levels of personal talent will be able to achieve at higher levels in secondary school than would be predicted by purely cognitive assessments. Hence, secondary schools should consider adding personal talent assessments to their identification procedures.

Personal talent is also important for high-ability adolescents because it enables them to enhance their well-being (Moon, 2003b). In childhood, the most important influence on well-being is family functioning. Family remains very important to well-being at the beginning of adolescence, but becomes increasingly less important as adolescence progresses. Adults who live in a free and open society are responsible for creating their own well-being. Hence, adolescence becomes an important transition period between childhood, where most determinants of well-being are outside of the individual’s control, to adulthood, where most determinants of well-being are under personal control. The psychological component of personal talent may be the most important component to develop in adolescents to enhance their well-being. High-ability students need to understand, internalize, and exhibit the psychological dispositions that research has repeatedly demonstrated enhance well-being, such as optimism and hardiness (Moon, 2003b). They also need to develop strong personal decision-making skills, because the choices they make for their lives during the adolescent years will have a dramatic impact on their well-being. Moral/ethical reasoning and decision making need to be part of the personal talent curriculum for talented youth to assist them in making wise choices that will benefit others as well as themselves. Finally, personal talent development is especially important for high-ability adolescents who wish to build their lives around the simultaneous achievement of multiple, competing goals. The more complex a life an adolescent wants to lead, the more important it is for him or her to develop personal talent.

Social Components

The social dimension is included in our framework because social relationships become increasingly important facilitators or inhibitors of talent development during the adolescent period. We do not believe it is necessary for all gifted adolescents to develop high levels of social talent. High levels of social talent are most essential for those adolescents whose career goals are focused on fields that have high social talent demands such as teaching and leadership (Moon & Ray, 2006). However, high-ability adolescents who are able to successfully negotiate the tasks of differentiating from their family of origin and developing healthy peer relationships that promote both achievement and affiliation are likely to enjoy higher levels of well-being and success in school than their peers who experience social alienation or hide their talents in order to be accepted and popular (Clasen & Clasen, 1995; Peterson, 2002).

Because peer relationships are so important to adolescents, the social domain is an important influence on talent development trajectories in adolescence (Clasen & Clasen, 1995; Coleman, 2001; Cross, Coleman, & Stewart, 1995; Cross, Coleman, & Terhaar-Yonkers, 1991; Steinberg, 1996). In addition, as adolescence progresses, high-ability adolescents are increasingly likely to want to integrate intimate relationships into their lives. Those adolescents who have superior social skills are likely to be more successful in building strong, supportive friendships and intimate relationships with persons who encourage them to fulfill their individual potential. Further, students who develop empathy for their peers are more able to view situations from different perspectives. They experience a reciprocal understanding with peers in that they are capable of discerning another person’s perspective on some issue or event, but they are also better able to understand that person’s perspective on their own point of view (Selman, 2006).

Academically talented adolescents who participate in summer talent development programs often perceive the primary benefits of those programs to be social in nature (Enersen, 1993). In other words, these students are aware they that need, and benefit from, positive, supportive peer relationships with other students like themselves who understand them and support their achievement orientation.

Finally, social competence is a prerequisite for success in many fields that do not require high levels of social talent. For example, engineers and scientists need to have good teamwork skills. Therefore, we believe that secondary schools must pay attention to the social dimension of students’ development. It is not enough to help talented adolescents develop academic expertise. Educators must also assist them in learning skills in the social domain such as how to seek out mentors, develop collegiality, collaborate with persons from other cultures, and create support networks (Jarvin & Subotnik, this edition).

Implications for Identification and Programming

Introduction. Our holistic, developmental framework suggests school districts need to pay attention to cognitive, personal, and social characteristics in the identification process, regardless of the underlying conception of