Applying Theory to Generalist Social Work Practice

By Carol L. Langer and Cynthia Lietz

The social worker's guide to integrating theory and practice

Applying Theory to Generalist Social Work Practice teaches aspiring social workers how to apply theory in real world practice. Fully aligned with the Council on Social Work Education's 2015 Educational Policy and Accreditation Standards, the book links theory to practice with clear, concise instruction including a discussion of evidence-based practice. Twelve commonly-used theories are thoroughly explained, with discussion of the strengths and limitations of each, and applied to real work with individuals, groups, families, communities, and organizations. The book includes case studies and first-person contributions from practicing social workers to illustrate the real-world scenarios in which different concepts apply. Critical thinking questions help students strengthen their understanding of the ideas presented. Tools including a test bank, PowerPoint slides, and an instructor's manual are available to facilitate classroom use, providing a single-volume guide to the entire helping process, from engagement to termination.

Practice is a core foundational course for future social workers, but many practice texts focus on skills while neglecting the theoretical basis for social work. Applying Theory to Generalist Social Work Practice fills that gap by covering both skills and theory in a single text.

• Examines the applications of prevailing social theories
• Covers the most common theories used in micro, mezzo, and macro practice
• Helps readers understand well-established approaches like strengths perspective, humanistic and client-centered, task-centered, and solution-focused brief therapy
• Shows how to apply major theories including ecological/system, cognitive/behavioral, conflict, empowerment, narrative, crisis, critical, and feminist

An effective social worker recognizes the link between theory and practice, and how the two inform each other to culminate in the most effective intervention and most positive outcome for the client. Applying Theory to Generalist Social Work Practice provides students with a roadmap to the full integration of philosophy and application in social work.

• Language: English
• Publisher: Wiley
• Release date: Nov 25, 2014
• ISBN: 9781118859780

Book preview

CONTENTS

Cover

Title Page

Copyright

Introduction

Chapter 1: The Role of Theories in Social Work Practice

Introduction

What Is Theory?

The Relevance of Studying Theory for Aspiring Social Workers

Case Example

Evidence-Based Practice

Further Debates

Theoretical Integration

Common Elements

Implementation of Theory: The Role of Microskills

Conclusion

Resources for Students

References

Chapter 2: Ecological and Systems Theories

Introduction

A Historical Discussion of Ecological and Systems Theories

Key Concepts

Theoretical Principles

Application of Ecological and Systems Theories Within Social Work Practice

Case Example

Stories From the Field

Student Application of Skills

Strengths and Limitations of Ecological and Systems Theories

Conclusion

Resources for Students

References

Chapter 3: The Strengths Perspective

Introduction

A Social Work History Lesson

Key Concepts

Theoretical Principles

Application of the Strengths Perspective Within Social Work Practice

Case Example

Stories From the Field

Student Application of Skills

Strengths and Limitations of the Strengths Perspective

Conclusion

Resources for Students

References

Chapter 4: The Task-Centered Model

Introduction

A Historical Discussion of the Task-Centered Model

Theoretical Principles

Application of the Task-Centered Model Within Social Work Practice

Middle Phase: Intervention

Case Example

Stories From the Field

Student Application of Skills

Strengths and Limitations of the Task-Centered Model

Conclusion

Resources for Students

References

Chapter 5: Conflict Theory

Introduction

A Historical Discussion of Conflict Theory

Macro Practice Case Example

Mezzo Practice Case Example

Application of Conflict Theory Within Social Work Practice

Stories From the Field

Student Application of Skills

Strengths and Limitations of Conflict Theory

Conclusion

Resources for Students

References

Chapter 6: Humanism and Client-Centered Theory

Introduction

A Historical Discussion of Client-Centered Theory

Key Concepts

Theoretical Principles

Stories From the Field

Application of Client-Centered Theory Within Social Work Practice

Case Example

Student Application of Skills

Strengths and Limitations of Client-Centered Theory

Conclusion

Resources for Students

References

Chapter 7: Cognitive and Behavioral Theories

Introduction

A Historical Discussion of Behaviorism and Cognitive Theory

Key Concepts

Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy

Application of CBT Within Social Work Practice

Stories From the Field

Case Example

Student Application of Skills

Strengths and Limitations of Cognitive and Behavioral Theories

Conclusion

Resources for Students

References

Chapter 8: Empowerment Theory

Introduction

A Historical Discussion of Empowerment Theory

Development of Empowerment in Social Work

Theoretical Principles

Application of Empowerment Theory Within Social Work Practice

Case Example

Stories From the Field

Student Application of Skills

Strengths and Limitations of Empowerment Theory

Conclusion

Resources for Students

References

Chapter 9: Narrative Theory

Introduction

A Historical Discussion of Narrative Theory

Key Concepts

Theoretical Principles

Application of Narrative Theory Within Social Work Practice

Case Example

Stories From the Field

Student Application of Skills

Strengths and Limitations of Narrative Theory

Conclusion

Resources for Students

References

Chapter 10: Solution-Focused Brief Therapy

Introduction

A Historical Discussion of SFBT

Theoretical Principles of SFBT

Application of SFBT Within Social Work Practice

Case Example

Stories From the Field

Student Application of Skills

Strengths and Limitations of SFBT

Conclusion

Resources for Students

References

Chapter 11: Crisis Theory

Introduction

A Historical Discussion of Crisis Theory

Levels of Crisis

Stages of Experiencing and Resolving a Crisis

Case Example

The Critical Incident Stress Debriefing and Management Protocol

Stories From the Field

Student Application of Skills

Strengths and Limitations of Crisis Theory

Conclusion

Resources for Students

References

Chapter 12: Feminist and Critical Theories

Introduction

Historical Foundation and Overview of Critical Theory

Theoretical Principles of Critical Theory

Historical Foundation and Overview of Feminist Theory

Theoretical Principles of Feminist Theory

Similarities and Differences

Key Concepts

Principles of Feminist and Critical Theories Within Social Work Practice

Application of Feminist and Critical Theories Within Social Work Practice

Case Example

Stories From the Field

Student Application of Skills

Strengths and Limitations of Feminist and Critical Theory Approaches

Conclusion

Resources for Students

References

Chapter 13: Transtheoretical Model

Introduction

A Historical Discussion of TTM

Key Concepts

Theoretical Principles

Stages of Change

Motivational Interviewing

Application of TTM Within Social Work Practice

Case Example

Stories From the Field

Student Application of Skills

Strengths and Limitations of TTM and Motivational Interviewing

Conclusion

Resources for Students

References

Chapter 14: Theory and Practice: Pulling It All Together

Acknowledgments

About the Authors

Author Index

Subject Index

End User License Agreement

List of Tables

Table I.1

Table 1.1

Table 1.2

Table 1.3

Table 1.4

Table 2.1

Table 2.2

Table 3.1

Table 3.2

Table 4.1

Table 4.2

Table 5.1

Table 5.2

Table 6.1

Table 6.2

Table 7.1

Table 7.2

Table 8.1

Table 8.2

Table 8.3

Table 9.1

Table 9.2

Table 9.3

Table 10.1

Table 10.2

Table 10.3

Table 11.1

Table 11.2

Table 12.1

Table 13.1

Table 13.2

Table 13.3

List of Illustrations

Figure 2.1

Applying Theory to Generalist Social Work Practice

A Case Study Approach

Carol L. Langer

Cynthia A. Lietz

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:

Langer, Carol L.

Applying Theory to Generalist Social Work Practice: A Case Study Approach/Carol L. Langer, Cynthia A. Lietz.

ISBN: 978-1-118-85976-6 (pbk.); ISBN 978-1-118-85971-1 (ebk); ISBN: 978-1-118-85978-0 (ebk)

1. Social service—Case studies. 2. Social case work—Case studies. 3. Social service. 4. Social case work. I. Lietz, Cynthia A. II. Title.

HV40

361.3'2—dc23

2014016594

Introduction

Welcome to the world of theory and social work practice. We designed this book to help you discover and be able to use the links between theory and practice. These links will help to guide your social work practice. This book is not a human behavior book, nor is it a microskills book. We intend for it to be a book that illustrates the link between the theories in social work and the helping process that extends from engagement through termination. It is an exciting time to be in the practice of social work because human needs continue to grow and we as social work practitioners are typically on the front lines, providing what is necessary to meet those needs. Every part of the human existence is likely open for social work practice, and the types of needs change as time and technology change. For example, sex addiction via the Internet was not as prevalent 10 to 15 years ago as it is now. The economic demands on the provision of social work have also escalated. There is increasing pressure to provide measurable evidence that our practice interventions have made a difference in people's lives—and those changes sometimes have to happen fairly quickly to receive compensation to fund a program. We chose this profession because we want to help people. We can help people in many ways and at various levels of practice. The purpose of this book is to provide a foundation of the primary theories that inform social work practice, creating a knowledge base that will be critical as you ready yourself for your practice experience.

In this book, a variety of practice theories that are most commonly used in generalist practice are described, along with case examples that illustrate how theory informs what we think and what we do as social work practitioners. These theories are different from those typically found in most human behavior books; rather than describing the process of human development, practice theories focus on theoretical explanations regarding the causes of social problems and the corresponding interventions that can help foster the growth and change process. Because some instructors will prefer to discuss these theories as they developed historically and others might prefer to move from modern to postmodern perspectives, these chapters stand alone, meaning they can be read in varied orders to fit diverse ways of organizing the material. From the many theories available to us, we have carefully selected those that we think will be most useful to you as you enter practice.

Generalist Practice

This book aims to provide a link between theory and social work practice. It develops a theoretical foundation from which you can draw to serve your clients. Different lenses, or theories, are presented and coupled with practice situations, from assessment through evaluation, that are designed to assist you in increasing your understanding of the importance of linking theory to practice. In the beginning level of practice situations, you are called upon to be generalists; this means you should be able to respond to human need through micro practice, mezzo practice, or macro practice methods and should be able to respond to needs expressed by systems of all sizes, including individuals, families and groups, organizations, and communities. This is a pretty tall order. The Bachelor of Social Work curriculum ensures that you receive knowledge and skills, and understand the related social work values, across the spectrum of systems from conception to death. Inherent in the curriculum is an integrated understanding of general systems theory and the ecological perspective. Each system is within a particular context. Content areas include human behavior and the social environment, social welfare policy, diversity, economic and social justice, practice methods, ethics and values, research, and field experience. To ensure that you receive the knowledge, skills, and values and can use them in practice, the Council on Social Work Education (CSWE) develops academic standards by which programs measure their relative effectiveness in reaching student learning outcomes.

CSWE Educational Policy and Accreditation Standards

The 2008 Educational Policy and Accreditation Standards developed by CSWE through the Commission on Accreditation moved from a focus in earlier standards of ensuring that each accreditation standard was linked to program objectives, or input, to evaluating the student learning outcomes that are linked to the accreditation standards, or output. The core competencies measure student learning outcomes, and each competency is accompanied by the practice behaviors that each program defines, identifies, and measures. Examples of practice behaviors are provided by CSWE. These competencies will be updated in 2015, and draft forms of them are provided in Table I.1. Because CSWE expects these competencies to have been achieved upon graduation, it is essential that programs are intentional about which competencies are covered in various courses within their curriculum. To assist with this planning, each chapter in this book starts with a summary of the core competencies that are addressed in that particular chapter.

Table I.1 2015 CSWE Core Competencies

Source: www.cswe.org

Evidence-Based Practice

One of the current movements in social work education that links theory to practice is that of evidence-based practice (EBP), which is explained in detail in Chapter 1. There are both supporters of EBP and skeptics about EBP. Supporters generally believe that using the critical thinking methods embedded within EBP teaches students how to frame research and practice-pertinent questions, how to seek evidence, how to evaluate that evidence, and how to apply that evidence to a specific client. Supporters also indicate that linking the knowledge gained from the practice evaluation of others gives practitioners insight into the practice methods that are particularly helpful with a given set of client needs. Those who are less accepting of EBP agree with the basic tenets of asking pertinent questions and seeking evidence. Where the skepticism emerges is in the area of applying knowledge of a particular intervention to a given client population. Skeptics suggest that this decision making could lead a practitioner who is not skilled in that intervention to attempt its use, based on the result of the evidence search, and possibly miss the needs or preferences of the client. Furthermore, skeptics suggest that EBP turns the practice of social work into a recipe or a cookie cutter approach. EBP can eliminate the uniqueness of the client because its practice lumps all clients with similar needs into the same category. Another criticism of EBP is the time that it takes to carry out each step of the process. In reality, the practitioner may have a limited period in which to choose a model and act. This may be the result of shrinking third-party payments (managed care), necessitating a shorter period of involvement with clients. A final criticism of EBP is that, taken to its extreme, the approach means social work educational settings should instruct students only in methods that have been studied long enough to produce a body of work suggesting their superior applicability to a client population. An example of this is cognitive-behavioral therapy. What this means is that a body of theories, such as strengths, narrative, and role theories, which are particularly fitting for bachelor-level social work students, are omitted from the curriculum because of a lack of evidence for their use. At its furthest extreme, no one would study those theories and their interventions because they would not be taught or used.

Our position on EBP is that the critical thinking and research involved create a culture of lifelong education of which we are supportive. We emphasize that if the results of the research indicate a method of intervention with which practitioners are not familiar, they should consider other ways of serving clients. Those choices might include a referral. We want our student practitioners to be self-aware. We adhere to the mandate first do no harm. Within each chapter of this book is a brief discussion of the EBP results for use and contraindication of use of each theory discussed. The book is student friendly, stimulates critical thinking, and encourages personal and professional growth. Most of all, our discussions, chapter content, and related activities demonstrate the importance of theoretically grounded social work practice.

How to Use This Book

To illustrate how best to use this book and its accompanying materials to clearly link theory to practice (and why this is important), let us think about traveling. Nowadays, most vehicles or cell phones have some sort of navigation system in place. In theory, it is more difficult to get lost. This book is a navigation system through the art and science of a helping relationship. When a driver makes a wrong turn, the navigational technology voice says, Recalculating. Although the book will not talk aloud to you, we hope it will speak to you in meaningful ways and, as a result, help you to avoid wrong turns. If a wrong turn does happen, the theory can guide you to recalculation of your destination. With a navigation system, you have the option to choose either the shortest or the fastest route. Sometimes those things are mutually exclusive. The same can be said of the choice of theory to use in a particular situation. You can use crisis theory quickly because the need is immediate. Narrative theory, however, may take a bit longer. The important point is that both you and the client arrive safely on the other side of the helping relationship to a place where the client feels better, thinks more clearly, and has accessed resources and where, when possible, communities, agencies, or policies are changed in such a way that human rights are fostered.

The helping relationship is therapeutic. That is not the same as providing therapy. By therapeutic, we mean healing, hopeful, and helpful. The social worker may drive the car in some theoretical orientations, choosing the nature of the work to do, assigning tasks to complete, and providing summary reports on client progress. In other theoretical orientations, the client may drive the car, making the turns the internal navigation emotional or psychological system suggests, and the social worker may act much as the second driver does in a driver's education vehicle—there in case the car needs more skillful maneuvers. The client may choose the destination, and the social worker can suggest several routes.

To assist you as a student practitioner in learning the navigation systems of a number of theories, this book provides the destination, recommends stops along the way to allow critical thinking, suggests alternative routes, and might even tell you when you should not travel down particular roads. Each chapter describes and examines one particular theory. Included in the discussion are both historical development of each theory and contemporary understandings and refinements. Each chapter also provides examples of using theory during engagement, assessment, intervention, and evaluation; case studies provide additional clarification and practice. In addition, we present cross-cultural applications and contraindications for use. So, if you are ready to embark upon your journey as a student of theory and social work practice, let us begin. We hope you enjoy your journey.

Resources for Students

Overview of Several Social Work Theories

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fT8khvV0nYk

Generalist Practice From One Social Work Program

http://webs.wichita.edu/?u=socialwork&p=/BSW/GenReadMore/

CSWE Policy and Accreditation Standards

http://www.cswe.org/

Instructor's supplements are available at www.wiley.com/go/langer. The supplements include Instructor's Manuals, PowerPoint Slides, and a Mock Syllabus.

Chapter 1

The Role of Theories in Social Work Practice

Chapter One Core Competencies

Competency 4: Practice-Informed Research and Research-Informed Practice

Students will understand the process of evidence-based decision making and learn the importance of thinking critically about theories.

Competency 6: Engagement

Students will understand the importance of developing therapeutic, professional relationships with clients regardless of the theoretical approach chosen.

Students will be able to define the common elements that are essential to a practice regardless of the theory that is used to inform practice.

Competency 8: Intervention

Students will be able to identify various models used when integrating theories in practice.

Students will be able to think critically about the advantages and disadvantages of taking an eclectic approach.

Students will be able to define basic and advanced microskills and understand how microskills are used to implement interventions on micro-, mezzo-, and macrosystem practice levels.

Introduction

The purpose of this book is to show a range of practice theories that inform social work practice. In the past, you may have taken a class regarding human behavior. If so, you have already been exposed to a variety of developmental theories that describe how humans progress through the life cycle. This book instead focuses on practice theories that affect the way social workers assess, plan, and intervene with children, adults, families, and communities. Although there may be some overlap between human behavior theories and those covered in this book, our intention here is to offer an array of theories that can guide social work practice. To get you started in this exploration of theoretical foundations to practice, this chapter defines what theory is, discusses how theory can be applied to social work practice, and closes with a review of approaches social workers can use when integrating multiple theories at one time.

What Is Theory?

A theory is an organized set of ideas that seek to explain a particular phenomenon (see Table 1.2). Theories are typically formulated when there is no empirical evidence, something that can be observed through the five senses, to draw a definitive conclusion. A lack of observable evidence leads people to wonder about a particular experience, prompting the development of a theory or tentative conclusion. When possible, a theory is tested through the scientific method to determine the degree to which its assumptions are supported by observable evidence.

Considering recent technological advances, it is hard to imagine that people once believed the earth was flat. Lacking the ability to perceive beyond what the eye could see, people developed this assumption because that was what they were capable of observing at that time. The idea that the earth is round was originally only a theory. This tentative conclusion was eventually proved through irrefutable physical evidence.

Theories are used in the natural sciences to explain various phenomena, including changes in weather patterns or causes of various diseases. Following a similar procedure, social scientists develop theories to explain social phenomena, such as how patterns of violence get repeated across multiple generations or what factors lead to poverty. The challenge within the social sciences is that the ability to scientifically test theoretical assumptions through irrefutable physical evidence is limited because of their complexity and the considerations when conducting research on human subjects. Therefore, social scientists must be satisfied with evidence that lends support to their conclusions because there is little in the social sciences that can be discerned to the degree of knowing the earth is round.

As a result of the challenges facing social science researchers, the social work knowledge base is grounded in a multitude of theoretical ideas that come together to inform practice. There are varying levels of abstractions when considering theoretical material in social work (Coady & Lehman, 2008; Robbins, Chatterjee, & Canda, 2006). Some theoretical ideas can be quite broad, as is the case with a theoretical perspective or framework. These practice perspectives offer general, widely applicable ideas. In contrast, Coady and Lehman (2008) describe midlevel practice theories as providing more specificity. These theories provide more detail than perspectives, and they offer theoretical explanations regarding the nature of human behavior. Finally, practice models offer the greatest degree of direction. However, practice models may not be applicable across problems areas or populations. Table 1.1 provides a description of the strengths and limitations of each level of theoretical material informing social work practice.

Table 1.1 Levels of Theoretical Influences on Practice

Source: Coady & Lehman, 2008.

Table 1.2 Key Concepts

The person-in-environment perspective, problem-centered practice, and strengths perspective represent larger viewpoints that can be applied across social work practice. They are theoretical in that they offer an organized set of ideas that can be used to guide practice. However, they are not as clearly defined as some lower level theories. These three perspectives are in many ways the foundation to social work practice. Whereas social workers choose theories to add on to these larger perspectives, person-in-environment perspective, problem-centered practice, and strengths perspective inform all parts of social work practice.

Theories, in contrast, are more clearly defined than these larger perspectives and lend themselves more readily to testing. Cognitive theory and family systems theory represent midlevel theories. Theories are more specific than perspectives and therefore offer more direction regarding social work practice. However, their increase in specificity may leave them irrelevant for certain practice settings.

Finally, the most narrow and specified theoretical guides to practice are models. Practice models such as solution-focused brief therapy offer almost a how-to manual for social workers regarding what to say and do in specified client situations. When these models are put into manual form, also known as manualized treatment, they are the easiest of the levels to implement and measure. However, treatment manuals are often set up to offer one intervention chosen to affect one identified problem. Because social workers need to remain responsive to diverse client populations and specific cultural preferences, having one narrow model of practice is not always practical. Therefore, this chapter discusses strategies for integrating multiple theories, providing a range of practice interventions informed by theoretical perspectives, theories, and models chosen to fit the particular cultural preferences of each client.

The Relevance of Studying Theory for Aspiring Social Workers

Even before pursuing a social work degree, most of us spent time in the process of theorizing. Theorizing is a natural part of our thought process that leads people to ask questions about why something is the way it is. Even a child may notice a change in behavior of a parent who seems particularly on edge one morning at the breakfast table. When one sibling looks at another and claims, I think Dad didn’t sleep well last night, that child is drawing a conclusion about the cause of this particular behavior. Theorizing is to some degree a natural part of the human experience.

Thinking about the causes of human behavior is important in that it helps us understand what is happening. Sometimes, understanding is all that is needed to resolve a situation. For example, if a child can understand a parent’s agitation is caused by a lack of sleep rather than some resentment toward the child, it is relatively easy to accept the behavior and move on. In this case, the simple act of understanding may resolve the problem. However, at times, people may want a situation to change or improve. The child who theorizes that his father is cranky because he did not sleep well may offer a gentle suggestion that his parent not drink coffee in the afternoon. In this way, theorizing does more than simply lead to understanding; it also provides information regarding how to intervene to improve the situation.

If the process of theorizing is a natural part of the human condition, you might wonder why a social work book needs to discuss theory. In this book, we want to emphasize social work as a profession that is grounded in a professional knowledge base. Essentially, our assertion is that we all engage in the process of theorizing. However, when theorizing is divorced from a knowledge base, the process for understanding is based solely on our personal experiences, perspectives, and worldviews. Professional social workers need the ability to work with diverse populations who have experiences that are quite different from their own. Interacting with people who have different value systems in a respectful way can be difficult if the only frame of reference comes from a social worker’s past. As important as a social worker’s experiences are, many people would agree that these experiences are limited and may not offer direction for working with clients who have quite different experiences.

A professional knowledge base grounded in a rich history of theoretical perspectives and empirical evidence can help you to go beyond a process of theorizing that is limited by your own experiences. Practice theories can foster understanding because they explain the cause underlying a particular presenting problem. Practice theories can also describe the mechanism for change, the process through which positive growth and adaptation can occur. Most important, a professional knowledge base is grounded in a history of observations and experiences based on years of social work practice offering a broader perspective for social workers as they assess, plan, and intervene with complex social problems.

Case Example

Consider the case of Tamasi Sharma, an Indian American student who was conducting her field placement at a U.S. elementary school serving a community of Sudanese refugees. A note was sent home requesting permission for the third-grade students to view some television news shows for a unit on journalism in a history class. Despite multiple attempts, the school could not successfully get Ahmad, a new student from Sudan, to return the permission form to view the news shows. Tamasi was tasked with the responsibility of visiting the family at home to seek permission.

As Tamasi was driving to the home, she theorized about what might be happening. During this drive, she thought about the tension she experienced as a child when her family emigrated from India. She remembered the conflict that arose with her parents as she became more acculturated to the United States, leading her mother to fear she was losing touch with her family’s cultural beliefs and practice. Because of these experiences, Tamasi began to wonder whether Ahmad’s parents may have similar concerns that led them to choose not to approve the school’s request.

Based on her theorizing, Tamasi feared Ahmad would become socially isolated, as she felt at times, if he was not allowed to participate in various education activities. Therefore, she prepared an argument regarding why it was important for Ahmad to be included in this unit and entered the home ready to convince the parents to consent to the school’s request.

When Tamasi arrived at the home, she was invited to sit at the kitchen table of a small one-bedroom apartment. Despite a substantial language barrier, she attempted to make her case regarding the importance of granting Ahmad permission to participate in the journalism unit. Tamasi sensed some tension, believing the parents appeared distressed while speaking to each other in a language she could not understand. She chose to slow down and make her case again, yet the parents became increasingly agitated, and the father ultimately left the conversation and went into the bedroom. At this point, Tamasi decided this discussion was not helpful, so she thanked Ahmad’s mother for her time and began to make her way toward the door.

Before Tamasi could leave, Ahmad’s mother asked her to wait. Tamasi looked up and saw Ahmad’s father exiting the bedroom while carrying their one small TV. As the father approached Tamasi, he attempted to hand Tamasi the TV. She looked back at him puzzled, and the mother explained that although this was their only TV, they were willing to give it up so that their son could be educated.

At that moment, Tamasi realized the failure to sign the permission slip was not based on fears about acculturation, as she theorized, but was instead founded on a misunderstanding. In the Sudan, these parents were often pressured into giving up possessions of worth to people in power. When they received the permission slip that requested permission to view a TV show, they misunderstood the request and instead thought they were expected to give their TV, one of their only possessions, to the school. Once Tamasi understood what was happening, she was able to clarify the expectations and easily resolve the situation. As the parents understood the request, they were relieved and happy to give permission for Ahmad’s participation in the journalism unit.

In this case, Tamasi’s experiences, which were a great strength to her when working with many children and families, led to some assumptions about what was happening with Ahmad and his family that directed her intervention in a way that was not helpful. Although our experiences are a great asset in our work, a professional knowledge base helps broaden our thinking beyond our experiences, allowing us to better assess and intervene. This is not to say that a social worker’s history and experiences are not helpful in some ways. However, when social work decision making is divorced from a professional knowledge base and grounded solely in personal experiences, the practice lacks professionalism and can be unduly influenced by bias.

Evidence-Based Practice

As mentioned earlier, a theory is a set of organized ideas used to explain a phenomenon. Whether theorizing offers larger guiding frameworks that are applicable across settings, midlevel theories offering increased specificity, or models that offer directive guides to specialized practice techniques, the professional knowledge base is grounded in theoretical material that guides assessment, planning, and intervention. Although social scientists are not able to offer irrefutable evidence to prove their theories, as can in