New Testament Theology of Discipleship, An Anthology, 4th ed.

By Tae W. Kang and Deborah M. Gill

This collection of seminary-student papers on whole-life discipleship is arranged into two parts: Becoming Disciples of Jesus Christ and Making Disciples for Him.

• Language: English
• Publisher: Tae W. Kang
• Release date: Sep 19, 2012
• ISBN: 9781301872398

Tae W. Kang

Deborah Menken Gill has ministered as a teacher, pastor, in missions, and directing Christian Education and Discipleship for the Assemblies of God USA. With a Ph.D. in Biblical Studies from Fuller Theological Seminary, she serves today as Professor of Biblical Studies and Exposition at the Assemblies of God Theological Seminary (AGTS). Her husband, Jan, is an architect specializing in church design. Tae Wook Kang is an ordained pastor. When God called him to be a minister/pastor, he gave up pursuing a Ph.D. in Optical Sciences and came to the AG Theological Seminary to be equipped for his blessed call. He acquired a M.Div. from AGTS in 2012. Currently, he is the pastor at Vision of Love English Ministry in Hanover, MD. He holds a M.S. from University of Arizona and published a couple of articles in a peer-reviewed monthly scientific journal.

Book preview

TABLE OF CONTENTS

(CONTENTS AND ABSTRACTS BY THEME)

PREFACE

UNIT I. BECOMING DISCIPLES: CHRISTIAN LIVING

PART A: PERSONAL TRANSFORMATION

Toward a New Testament Theology of Conversation

Stephen W. Casey

The art of communication between individuals and groups of people is a pathway for relationship. However, sin has tainted all of creation, turning the tongue into a restless evil. Jesus Christ, conversely, provides the model of conversation apart from the taint of sin. The historical context in which Jesus held conversation establishes the underpinning for a New Testament theology of conversation. Jesus’ example exemplifies how conversation flows from personal integrity, humility, and identity in Christ and establishes relationships that usher newcomers into the Kingdom of God in love.

A Theology of Paul’s Expectations for Discipleship of Speech in the Prison Epistles

Starla Gooch

In discipleship, every area of a person’s life must be exposed to the grace of God and His transforming power, which includes a believer’s manner and content of speech. Though few people would contest that a disciple’s speech should be transformed and made Christlike, little agreement exists regarding what kind of speech transformation should occur. Because of the vast content regarding speech in the Bible, this paper explores and interacts specifically with Paul’s instructions regarding speech in the Prison Epistles of Ephesians, Philippians, and Colossians, which—in comparison to other writings from Paul—contain his strongest imperatives about speech.

A Matthean Theology of Faith Development Based on the Model of Christ with His Disciples

John Ulrick

Most believers desire to have great faith, to trust God for provision and guidance in their lives, as well as to stand firm during turbulent times; but how do people develop great faith? Based on the Gospel of Matthew, this chapter discusses: how faith naturally develops, how it can be fostered in people, and how Jesus strengthened the faith of his disciples during his time with them on earth. From these findings, the chapter concludes with an application of Jesus’ methods to strengthen our faith and others’.

A Marcan Theology of Compassion and Holistic Ministry

Katherine (Scott) Groce

This chapter is an overview of the theology of Jesus’ acts of compassion in his ministry throughout the Gospel of Mark. It looks at his holistic approach to ministry. The paper addresses three areas: to whom Jesus is compassionate; why Jesus is compassionate; and how Jesus shows compassion. The chapter explores many different passages throughout the Gospel of Mark that portray Jesus’ acting compassionately towards people. The chapter concludes by looking at the servanthood of Jesus, and how this portrayal of compassion should impact the way believers interact with people in their community and around the world.

A Marcan Theology of Faith

Carrie Stewart

This chapter explores the theme of faith in the Gospel of Mark. It explains the meaning of the word, faith, as it is used throughout the gospel and presents as well an overview of the historical and literary context of Mark. The purpose of Mark’s motif of faith in the narrative is to encourage persecuted believers to stand strong without fear of the future. This chapter surveys eight pericopes in which faith is portrayed as the evangelist’s narrative progresses to the Cross. We focus on Jesus’ response to people’s faith in Him and how He intervenes to meet their needs.

A New Testament Theology of Koinonia

Montra Estridge

Koinonia is a cycle that starts with God’s fellowship with the believer, continues in the believers’ fellowship with one another, and then facilitates the drawing of others into fellowship with God. Beginning with a lexical study of the word, koinonia and an examination of several concepts of koinonia (including its secular background use, New Testament uses, and how it was displayed in the early church), the goal of the study is to arrive at a New Testament theology of koinonia and steps for developing true fellowship in order to find a deeper understanding of the fellowship God has called Christians to as believers.

Jesus’ Theology of Believer’s Prayer

George True

Communication between two parties serves as the most important element undergirding their entire relationship. Proper communication lies at the heart of any healthy connection between two persons. In his teachings, the divine-human, Jesus Christ, presents foundational principles that strengthen and enhance the relationship between the believer and their Father in heaven, and allow them to live freely and move powerfully in the Kingdom of God. This paper contends that Jesus’ theology of believer’s prayer finds its basis in proper relationship to God and expectant faith in him. The heavenly Father loves to hear and answer His children’s desperate cries.

A Lucan Theology of Being Full of the Holy Spirit

Jason Seaman

Luke and Acts inform us, not only of the history and activity of the early church, but also of the theology of their author, Luke. In this chapter, the author endeavors to define a Lucan theology of being full of the Holy Spirit. Derived from his primary study of Luke-Acts, which explains what it means to be full of the Holy Spirit, he identifies biblical characteristics of being full of the Holy Spirit; who can be full of the Holy Spirit; how one becomes full of the Holy Spirit; and why one needs to be full of the Holy Spirit.

A Johannine Theology of the Sources of Spiritual Authority

Sierra McCabe

The writings of John overflow with authority, the authority of Jesus Christ as He walked this earth and the authority of His disciples as they followed in His footsteps. By examining the works of John it is possible to determine to source of this authority, which is made up of four components: identity, mission, empowerment and obedience. Christ’s identity as the Son of God, His mission on Earth, His empowerment through the Holy Spirit and His obedience to the will of the Father allowed him to exercise limitless authority. Furthermore, the authority believers is founded upon the exact same principles.

A Lucan Theology of Demons and Evil Spirits

Julia Ramos

This chapter examines the accounts in Luke and Acts from which can be drawn a theology of demons and evil spirits. First, we examine those passages that demonstrate the authority of Christ over demons and evil spirits (and the awareness on the part of the powers of evil of Christ and His power). Second, we study those passages that show the consequences of being demon possessed, the results of deliverance for the afflicted, and the spread of the gospel through deliverance. This chapter concludes with implications for the modern church regarding the importance of a believer’s authority in Christ.

PART B: WORK, ECONOMY, AND CULTURAL ENGAGEMENT

A Matthean Theology of Cultural Formation

Daniel Guy

The mutual abiding of the Christian in and with Jesus, and of Jesus in and among His followers, necessarily produces an ongoing transformation of the believer. This transformation, however, is not limited to an individual’s existential experience. As Christ-followers live and worship together in a community of faith, the values and ethics they share result in the formation of a distinctly Christian culture. This chapter explores Jesus’ ethical expectations for His followers, the emergence of a shared culture, and the nature of this new culture’s effect on the larger surrounding society as presented in Matthew’s Gospel.

A Lucan Theology for First Responders

Nikki Reeves

What is the right way to respond to someone’s need? This chapter focuses on principles derived from the books of Luke and Acts. In the book of Luke, the gospel author describes how Jesus personally responded to the needs of others and what He taught on that same subject. In the book of Acts, Luke continues this thread by showing how the disciples, specifically Peter, followed Jesus’ example and teaching. The last section of the chapter ties these Lucan principles to modern-day living and spotlights the surprising similarities between the New Testament example and secular training given to medical first responders.

A Lucan Theology of a Christ-Like Attitude Regarding Wealth: Looking at the Parables

Cheng (Cara) Zhang

By examining three parables of Jesus recorded in Luke, this chapter presents aspects of a Christ-like attitude toward wealth. 1. Consider the peril of wealth, for wealth can easily cause wrong motivations and become a stumbling block to one’s eternal life. 2. Recognize the realities of wealth. Wealth is a gift from God.; it does not belong to his disciples; and it does not provide eternal security. 3. Make the right investment of wealth, investing with a view toward God and toward others. The chapter concludes with implications for disciples of Jesus today.

A Lucan Theology of Giving

Laura da Silva

This chapter explores a theology of giving in Lucan writings to derive three points. First, it considers, according to Luke, the correct attitude a believer should have towards wealth and possessions, along with the consequences. Second, the chapter reflects on the Lucan motivations for giving: repentance, an experience of grace, and love. Third, it concludes with a discussion of Luke’s perspectives on whom and how believers should help.

A Lucan Theology of Christian Response to Poverty

Jerry Orf

Lucan literature often pays close attention to the plight of people trapped by poverty and the resulting suffering induced by poverty. The goal of this chapter is to examine the writings of Luke in order to develop a theology of Christian response to poverty. The author approaches this goal, methodologically, with research to locate the various portions of Luke’s writings that emphasize poverty; an examination of those passages in light of a wide array of scholarly resources; an integration of the findings; and, finally, a Christian response to poverty based on Lucan literature. The study concludes that the biblical responsibility of the Christ-follower is to practice stewardship and share resources with the poor and needy people of the world.

UNIT II. MAKING DISCIPLES

PART A: UNIVERSAL PRINCIPLES

The Correlation Between Abiding in Jesus and Making Disciples

Dick Brogden

John’s Gospel develops the missionary motif common to all Scripture. John 15:1-17 in particular highlights the harvest goal of God and the means by which this goal shall be obtained—the goal centers on many disciples made and the means centers on abiding in Christ. The disciples who abide in Christ will, in turn, make lasting disciples. Not all who are in Christ are abiding; not all who abide produce the disciples they should. John reveals remedial measures for both those categories. A third category of disciple includes those who refuse Christ’s mission which results in removal from the vine and utter destruction. This chapter examines what abiding actually is and how it shapes discipleship and mission.

A Theology of Kingdom Inclusion from the Matthean Parables of Jesus

Melody Sharon Bianchi

Matthew narrates Jesus' ministry and teachings to an audience of Jewish Christians, who were at that time grappling with the recent prospect of inviting Gentiles to enter into the kind of relationship with the God that they had always considered to be exclusive to the Jews. Jesus, knowing all along that His gospel would spread throughout all nations, creatively addressed such questions in His parables as, Who receives invitation to enter the kingdom of God? and, What criteria do God's servants use to decide whom to exclude from fellowship? The insights Christ offered apply to those asking the same questions today, as the Church delivers the same good news to the world today.

The Kingdom According to Paul: A Pauline Theology of the Kingdom of God

Christopher Zwemer

Jesus emphasizes the Kingdom of God in his teachings. Paul, by contrast, seems to rarely mention the topic. Why does Paul seem so silent on such a central topic to both Old and New Testaments? This paper examines passages with direct relationship to Paul that explicitly reference the Kingdom of God (basileia tou theou) or the concept of reigning (basileuō). This analysis will reveal that the Kingdom of God in fact rests at the heart of Paul’s theology and is in conforms to the same understanding of the Kingdom of God as the rest of scripture.

PART B. CROSS-CULTURAL APPLICATIONS (MISSIONS)

A Pauline Theology of Missions Motivations

Tae W. Kang

Why do Christians reach across cultures to share the good news of Jesus? Motivation matters to God! The goal of this chapter is to examine Paul’s motivations for missions in order to inform contemporary disciples of Jesus Christ how to do God’s work in ways that please God. The author approaches this goal, methodologically, by conducting primary research from Paul’s speeches in Acts and Paul’s thirteen epistles; by comparing these findings with contemporary scholarship; and thus collecting evidence for Paul’s motivations for missions. As a result, the author is convinced that four motivations seemed to drive Paul to do missions: a divine call, grace as God’s enabling power, a strong desire for the salvation of others, and the Great Commission.

A Pauline Theology of Local Church Participation in Missions

Jenny Fernanda Vielma Caceres

God not only calls the missionary, but also calls the local church to participate in cross-cultural outreach. This chapter, therefore, answers the question: in what ways did Paul expect the church to participate? After a careful study of all the passages in the New Testament in which the Apostle Paul addressed, called, or taught individual congregations regarding their corporate responsibilities in the Great Commission, the author summarizes Paul’s instructions in five principles of local church participation in missions: praying, visiting and helping, communicating mutually, giving financial support, and sending missionaries.

PART C. LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT

A Theology of Leadership Development Based on the Practice of Paul

Amy deVries

The Apostle Paul is a remarkable example of a powerful, powerless leader. He gained fame and respect as a traveling preacher, church planter, and disciple-maker yet he made it a habit to consistently give away power as often as he received it. He built the Kingdom of God by building people. Through his practice of engaging, equipping, and encouraging, he demonstrated his theology of leadership development. Paul built leaders intentionally. He did not focus on building a personal spiritual empire, but on pouring himself into the lives of men and women.

A Theology of Discipleship Coaching

Amy deVries

Discipleship is not a neatly packaged program that produces mature followers of Christ. It is not a slick four-step process that the disciple-hopeful can master and then graduate from. Discipleship is a life-long journey of walking with Jesus in the real world. Practices from the emerging field of coaching offer exciting tools that potential disciple-makers can use to help move disciples one step closer to Jesus. Each of the eleven Coaching Competencies endorsed by the International Coaching Federation align with scriptural principles that lay out a clear biblical theology behind the theories of discipleship coaching.

CONTENTS BY NEW TESTAMENT AUTHOR

MATTHEW

A Matthean Theology of Faith Development Based on the Model of Christ with His Disciples

John Ulrick

A Theology of Kingdom Inclusion from the Matthean Parables of Jesus

Melody Sharon Bianchi

Jesus’ Theology of Beliver’s Prayer

George True

A Matthean Theology of Cultural Formation

Daniel Guy

MARK

A Marcan Theology of Compassion and Holistic Ministry

Katherine (Scott) Groce

A Marcan Theology of Faith

Carrie Stewart

LUKE

A Lucan Theology of Being Full of the Holy Spirit

Jason Seaman

A Lucan Theology of Demons and Evil Spirits

Julia Ramos

A Lucan Theology for First Responders

Nikki Reeves

A Lucan Theology of a Christ-Like Attitude Regarding Wealth: Looking at the Parables

Cheng (Cara) Zhang

A Lucan Theology of Giving

Laura da Silva

A Lucan Theology of Christian Response to Poverty

Jerry Orf

JOHN

The Correlation Between Abiding in Jesus and Making Disciples: A Missiological Reflection on John 15:1-17

Dick Brogden

A Johannine Theology of the Sources of Spiritual Authority

Sierra McCabe

PAUL

A Pauline Theology of Missions Motivations

Tae W. Kang

A Pauline Theology of Local Church Participation in Missions

Jenny Fernanda Vielma Caceres

A Theology of Leadership Development Based on the Practice of Paul

Amy deVries

The Kingdom According to Paul: A Pauline Theology of the Kingdom of God

Christopher Zwemer

A Theology of Paul’s Expectations for Discipleship of Speech in the Prison Epistles

Starla Gooch

THE NEW TESTAMENT AS A WHOLE

Toward a New Testament Theology of Conversation

Stephen W. Casey

A Theology of Discipleship Coaching

Amy deVries

A New Testament Theology of Koinonia

Montra Estridge

PREFACE

It is with joy and thanksgiving that we offer this anthology of seminary-student papers on whole-life discipleship! Here is the story of how this anthology came into being.

In an effort to make the study of New Testament theology (NTT) more relevant to living every aspect of life as a disciple of Jesus Christ— 24:7 in 2011, I (Deborah M. Gill) began giving the masters-level NTT class (which I teach annually at the Assemblies of God Theological Seminary [AGTS]) a discipleship focus. I re-designed the class into three main units.

1. The students review the entire spectrum of NTT from the work/s of leading contemporary biblical scholars (such as Thielman, Schreiner, Marshall, or Ladd, etc.);

2. They read one biblical theology specific to discipleship (by Michael J. Wilkins). All the while throughout the semester, they participate in classroom lectures, discussions, and demonstrations. All of these activities aim toward fulfillment of my four-part goal, that the students

(a) learn to practice the discipline of NTT on their own, in order

(b) to apply the truths of the New Testament to every-day life,

(c) so as to follow Jesus more closely, and

(d) to lead others to do the same.

3. For their semester term-paper and final project, each student chooses a topic related to discipleship and writes their own NTT treatment of it. A highlight of the course is when the students make their in-class presentations on these discipleship topics.

At AGTS, we have a policy that students may not earn an A+ on a paper unless it is publishable. Since a number of these student papers deserved that distinction, I set out to see if we could publish them.

The Kern Family Foundation (KFF) is a great supporter of whole-life discipleship and has been a gracious friend to our seminary. One of their initiatives, "The Oikonomia Network: Theology that Works," helps theological educators equip the church for whole-life discipleship. We at AGTS agree with the KFF that Christianity should not be disconnected from life, but be integrated with it—penetrating and transforming every aspect of life, including work, the economy, and culture.

We wish to thank the Oikonomia Network of the KFF, and specifically Dr. Greg Forster, Program Director, for funding this publication of New Testament Theology of Discipleship, An Anthology. Because of their interest and special focus, we anticipate that in the future more NTT student papers (and thus chapters in subsequent editions of this book) will be written on work, economy, and culture.

We wish to acknowledge all the students in the various classes of New Testament Theology: a Discipleship Focus at AGTS, from whom we selected the papers in this anthology. They are a great group of Christ followers and my dear friends.

The class of Spring 2011 (First Edition):

Larry A. Anoa’i, David L. Atkins, Annie S. Bailey, Sergio L. Bastian, Eli J. Brooks, C. Craig Burns, Stephen W. Casey, Patrice N. Chinje, Stormy M. Davis, Amy J. deVries, Robert E. Ferguson, Michael J. Fullerton, Tae W. Kang, Heather R. Lassiter, Sung Min Oh, Jerry L. Orf, Guy M. Parrish, Timothy B. Smith, Timothy E. Stagner, Timothy K. Teague, John H. Tilden, Juliana J. E. Tilden, John D. Ulrick, Jenny F. Vielma, and Robyn M. Wilkerson.

The class of Fall 2011 (Second Edition):

Lynnea K. Chasteen, Ronald G. Meador, Laura J. da Silva, Katherine E. (Scott) Groce, Ryan L. Harris, S. Scott Harrup, Derek M. Henson, Michael W. Holsomback, Michael J. Johnson, Hannah L. Jones, Erin L. Joseph, Jana L. Justman, Joel T. Lafferty, Seth A. Lingenfelter, Keith L. Morris, Yvette A. Morris, Gary B. Ortego, Jenni L. Paul, Jason L. Seaman, Rommy E. Singletary, Travis L. Skavhaug, and Coby D. Smith.

The class of Fall 2012 (Third Edition):

Garet Arnold, John Bartlett, Melody Bianchi, Montra Estridge, Brian Filipek, Jonathan Hallgren, Sungchul Kim, Dickson Marfo, Sierra McCabe, Julia Ramos, Jason Reeves, Nikki Reeves, Luis Soto, Carrie Stewart, Cara (Cheng) Zhang, Christopher Zwemer.

The class of Fall 2013 (Fourth Edition):

Brian (Bez) Benson, Jason Brodhagen, Jordan Cameron, Andre Davis, Anthony Doan, Raymond Donat, Starla Gooch, Daniel Guy, Gavin Hovland, Alex Limonchenko, Jose Lopez, Christopher Parkinson, Kendi Satterfield, Mary-Jo Sedenquist, and George True.

(Most of the original NTT student papers were fifteen pages long; a few students who opted for additional credits submitted longer papers.)

I am also very appreciative to Dick Brogden, one of my students in the Ph.D. in Intercultural Studies Program at AGTS, for permitting us to include a portion of the biblical-theology chapter of his dissertation. (This paper comprised seventy pages before formatting for electronic publication.)

Finally, I am most grateful to my teaching assistant in NTT, Tae W. Kang, for his gracious willingness and conscientious excellence in offering the final edits on these papers and for formatting them as chapters for this electronic publication. There is no way I could have this without him! Thank you, Tae.

May the grace and truth of Jesus be with you all!

Deborah M. Gill and Tae W. Kang

4th enlarged ed., May, 2014

Springfield, MO

Deborah Menken Gill has ministered as a teacher, pastor, in missions, and directing Christian Education and Discipleship for the Assemblies of God USA. With a Ph.D. in Biblical Studies from Fuller Theological Seminary, she serves today as Professor of Biblical Studies and Exposition at the Assemblies of God Theological Seminary (AGTS). Her husband, Jan, is an architect specializing in church design.

Tae Wook Kang is an ordained pastor. When God called him to be a minister/pastor, he gave up pursuing a Ph.D. in Optical Sciences and came to the AG Theological Seminary to be equipped for his blessed call. He acquired a M.Div. from AGTS in 2012. Currently, he is the pastor at the Young People’s Church in Silver Spring, MD. He holds a M.S. from University of Arizona and published a couple of articles in a peer-reviewed monthly scientific journal.

UNIT I. BECOMING DISCIPLES: CHRISTIAN LIVING

PART A: PERSONAL TRANSFORMATION

Toward a New Testament Theology of Conversation

Stephen W. Casey

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION

1. HISTORICAL CONTEXT OF CHRIST IN CONVERSATION

Table Fellowship

Oral Society

Anti-Society

Anti-Language

2. TOWARD A NEW TESTAMENT THEOLOGY OF CONVERSATION

Equality in Conversation

Character in Conversation

Conversation in the Kingdom of God

Conversation is Connection

Discipleship Focus

CONCLUSION

NOTES

BIBLIOGRAPHY

INTRODUCTION

In the beginning, God created the heavens and the earth. In six days, God completed His labor and all things that He created He deemed good. From the fish and the sea, to the birds and the air, to man and the garden, all things God created were good. He created all things ex nihilo, out of nothing, as God alone has the capability of creating from nothing (Hebrews 11:3). Therefore, since God alone created all things, and brought all things forth from nothing, God alone holds the capability of giving each piece of creation purpose. The first chapter of Genesis recounts that God intends the greater and lesser lights to govern the day and night, the plants and trees purpose to be food for humankind, and humans to be fruitful and multiply, filling the earth and ruling over all living things within it.¹ God created all things with purpose. God created nothing pointlessly; not the stars in the sky, mosquitoes buzzing around us, or even the words that flow from our lips.

Turning to the Gospel of John, it reads, In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God (John 1:1).² Through the Word, all things came into being, and apart from Him nothing came into being that has come into being (John 1:3). Paul, in Colossians 1:13-16, echoes John’s claims of Creation through the Divine Word, adding in verse seventeen that, in Him³ all things are held together (Colossians 1:17). As God created all things through the Divine Word of Jesus Christ, and the Word holds all things together, all things become best understood through Jesus Christ. Therefore, each and everything’s purpose also has a unique tint through Jesus Christ and each purpose, including the lights governing the day and night, becomes better viewed through the Divine Word.

God purposed within Creation that humanity should engage in relationship with one another. People ought to live out their lives in relationship not only vertically with God, but also horizontally with each other. Paul teaches that we should not forsake assembling together (Hebrews 10:25), but that each of us together in relationship form the body of Christ (1 Corinthians 12:12). Paul, teaching about relationship within the church, creates a dynamic of interpersonal relationship that illustrates the truth that God intends people to live out their lives together. In order properly to fulfill this God intended purpose of interpersonal relationship, God opened the mouths of people and gave language so that communication might be achievable. A relationship between individuals, therefore, becomes attainable through a cross communication more simply called conversation. However, James in his epistle illustrates how sin has tainted conversation (James 3:1-12).

According to James, the tongue, by which humans engage in conversation, is a restless evil and full of deadly poison and with it we curse men (James 3:8, 9). Therefore, the intended purpose of conversation also tastes the taint of sin. Since God created all things, and created a purpose for all things, He therefore created conversation and its relational purpose of cross communication. Furthermore, as all things came into being through the Divine Word of Jesus Christ, the purpose of conversation apart from the taint of sin surveys best through Jesus Christ. A New Testament theology of conversation develops through a look into the community and culture of which Jesus Christ engaged in conversation whereupon God’s view of conversation finds extrapolation.

HISTORICAL CONTEXT OF CHRIST IN CONVERSATION

A New Testament theology of conversation extrapolates best out of the historical context in which Jesus held conversation. Without first looking at the context from which the theology of conversation derives, it would be difficult to comprehend fully the theology. Not only do the words Jesus spoke hold importance, but also why and how He spoke those words retains meaning. Jesus’ words in teachings and conversations did not merely flow from nothing, but occur often within a larger context, whether answering a question, or responding to a situation. The contexts of the conversations of Jesus Christ hold significance as well as the words.

Table Fellowship

During the New Testament period, conversation occurred most often during ritual social gatherings. One of the most prominent social gatherings of the time occurred during the social meals often referred to as table fellowship. These meals gathered social equals into ceremonies for celebration of social status. The table fellowship acted as a ceremony occurring on a regular basis wherein the roles and statuses of people in a community find affirmation. As table fellowship operated as a ceremonial meal, each aspect of the meal’s structure held meaning. The typical meal, including nine attendees, reclined around a low table where servants would place the various courses of the meal. Within this setting, three sections enclosed the table (See Fig. 1). The sections: in summo, in medio, and in imo, each held a different distinction of social

Figure 1. Bruce J. Malina and Richard L. Rohrbaugh. Social Science Commentary on the Synoptic Gospels (Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press, 1992), 366.

rank.⁴ The section of in summo held the highest honor, in medio the mid-honor, and in imo, the lowest honor, which the meal’s host occupied. Each section contained three seats: summus, medius, and imus. Again, each held particular distinctions of rank and honor with summus holding the most, medius the middle honor, and imus the lowest honor. Within this context, the seat of summus inside the section of in summo was the seat for the most honored guest. Politesse did not allow an incoming guest to take this seat, lest a person of higher rank should come in after the person, forcing that person shamefully to relinquish the seat of highest honor.

The important aspect of the table setting was the recognition of social rank. As such, any cross-social interaction between high and low classes within a table fellowship became inconceivable. An individual of higher rank would never eat at the table of a social pariah. Eating with a person of lower rank would shame the social elite, bringing devastating results to their social rank. However, individuals of lower rank might try to gain a higher social rank by inviting people of a higher status to their table fellowship. If those of the next rank accept the invitations of the lower, this would elevate the lower person’s social standing. More likely, however, a lower rank person would gain social status through accepting invitations to prestigious social tables. This never crossed wide degrees of social strata, but only between those of neighboring social ranks. An elite person who invited non-elite people to a table fellowship has sharply broken ranks with family members and elite friends.⁵ If seen eating with those of lower rank, the family members and social networks would cut the elite person out of elite social circles. This especially rang true in the cities where status stratification was sharp and members of the elite were expected to maintain it.⁶ Table fellowship became an important aspect of the culture, established in ritual, meant to cement social relationships within social ranks, and to divide people into segregated groups of social bearing.

Jesus often entered into table fellowship situations to engage people in conversation. The Gospel of Luke describes several of Jesus’ table fellowship interactions.⁷ These settings of table fellowship, which Jesus entered into, would cross social ranks. Jesus would eat these meals with the elite and the non-elite alike. In Luke 14:1, Jesus entered into the house of one of the leaders of the Pharisees . . . to eat at a table fellowship meal, while in Luke 19:1-10 Jesus ate at the house of Zaccheus, a rich chief tax collector. Within the social context of the religious elite, Jesus found himself at the table of the leaders of the Pharisees, and within the social context of the wealthy elite, Jesus found himself at the table of Zaccheus, a very wealthy man. Within these contexts of elitism alone, Jesus found himself in various social domains. However, Jesus also ate at the table of unsavory people, such as tax collectors, prostitutes, sinners and other social outcasts (Luke 5:29-30, 15:2).⁸

Luke 15:2, understood in the light of table fellowship restrictions, gives a great understanding of Jesus’ cross-social bearing. In the passage, the scribes and Pharisees grumbled that Jesus receives sinners and eats with them (Luke 15:2). To the Pharisaic mind, Jesus slapped the faces of the Pharisees and their social customs. The leaders of the Pharisees considered Jesus on the social level of the elite leaders of society since they invited Jesus to their table (Luke 14:1). However, when Jesus ate with sinners, He showed no favoritism, and illustrated that He held the sinners and the Pharisees on equal social ground, thus insulting the Pharisees’ social pride. In stark contrast to the social ranks, Jesus illustrated the hospitality of God to the rejected world that the elite, including the Pharisees, often withheld.⁹ To Jesus, no social distinction partitions people. In the mind of Christ, the worst of the sinners in the lowest ranks of society, and the people of the social and religious elite, found equality. All the regulations of the table fellowship meals meant nothing, as they only increased pride and created social segregation. When Jesus entered into conversation within these contexts, He devaluated markedly these human distinctions of pride.

John chapter thirteen describes a unique table fellowship gathering. In this chapter, John describes the Passover meal that Jesus ate with His disciples. The Passover meal remains one of the most important events to the Jews. The meal remembers the salvation that God brought the Hebrews as He delivered them from the bondage of Egypt. This particular table fellowship holds several meanings. In John 13:3, Jesus, knowing who He was as the Son of God, did not regard equality with God a thing to be grasped (Philippians 2:6), but chose to humble Himself in the likeness of men (Philippians 2:7) and eat with His disciples, and even wash their feet. Jesus did not hold that the rituals of table fellowship should dictate social importance. As God made flesh, He held the most honor, and yet He chose to humble Himself in the form of the incarnation and eat with sinful men. This exceptional divide of rank did not occur important to Jesus as He could have sought the honor due Him. However, Jesus chose not to require any great honor, choosing humility instead. Social rank does not exist as an aspect of Jesus’ Kingdom.

Furthermore, the Passover meal was a familial meal.¹⁰ Jesus, by eating the Passover meal with His disciples, entered into a deeper relationship with them. Jesus illustrated a distinction of family that the disciples would carry into the foundation of the church, where family became more than blood relatives, as believers become brothers and sisters of the faith. Jesus defined a counter-culture relationship in this setting to the disciples, while creating a new definition of social interaction and conversation between people. In the proper context, according to Jesus’ actions, conversation should not segregate people, but bring them together in a familial bond.

Oral Society

Jesus lived in an oral society. The people of the day interacted together through oral communication brought out in conversation. The Jews of Jesus’ day understood speech, or conversation, as the primary ingredient for their lives in society.¹¹ The people in the oral communities often felt a sacred tie between oneself and one’s words. Within this context, truth merits solely on the integrity of the individual. The truth and the truth giver are intimately connected.¹² Therefore, the reliability of the message depended upon the credibility of the messenger. To deny the credibility of an individual discredits any message that they might bear, however truthful it might be. If the message relates truth, but the person’s behavior does not, the message holds no weight. Therefore, to deliver any form of truth in conversation a person needed a credible character. When a person of credibility spoke truth, that truth mirrored an aspect of their nature. While parents today often spout the idiom, do as I say, not as I do, this ideal would not register in an oral community. The truth that an individual declared became the same truth that the individual speaking upheld in their daily lives.

In Colossians 3:17, Paul declares that whatever you do, in word or deed, do everything in the name of the Lord Jesus. Oral cultures deemed it inconceivable that the two elements of word and deed could find separation. Paul alludes that both word and deed in unison find their true essence in a person’s companionship with Jesus Christ.

Jesus displayed just such a manner of unity between word and deed. In Luke 4:36, the Pharisees comment that Jesus spoke with a level of authority that they had never before encountered. In this instance, they implied more than that Jesus spoke compellingly. The power generated by the unison of word and being in Jesus, not simple mastery of the Law or a skilled gift of persuasion, left the best speakers of the Law speechless when Jesus spoke. Jesus displayed a level of integrity in His conversations and actions where the complete merging of person, spirit, and message became visible.¹³ The Jews of the day held the belief that encountering truth ultimately became an encounter with the Creator through the presence of the messenger.¹⁴ Jesus brought an encounter of the Creator into people’s lives, not only because of His divinity, but because His truth, brought out in conversation, became inextricably linked to His very being.

Anti-Society

Society consists of several different elements that comprise the whole. The anti-society develops as one such element of society. When members of a society remain in society but are opposed to and in conflict with it (in the words of John, they are in the world but not of it), they form an anti-society.¹⁵ The members of an anti-society remain in society but their loyalties do not stay with it. The anti-society is a hollowed out social space within the larger society, which it stands in opposition, as a conscious alternative to it.¹⁶

Anti-societies often consist of people displaced in one way or another by the larger society. The larger society considers these social outsiders deviant. Since the larger society deems them deviant, anti-societies often face hostility by the larger social system. In response, the deviant social outsiders form intense in-group loyalty (John’s term of love) that centers on the key figure in the group (Jesus). Emphasis in such an anti-society remains on relationships in the in-group and social contrast with the out-group. The larger society consists of ideas, such as status, distinctions of rank, care for personal appearance, and selfishness, whereas the anti-society alludes to placement, anti-distinction of rank, care not to shame the in-group, and other centeredness.¹⁷

Jesus and His disciples established an anti-society in opposition to the world. In John 8:23, Jesus reminds the Pharisees that while they remain a part of the larger society, He does not. While they are of this world, Jesus declares His alienation to this world. The Gospel of John points to an audience of individuals who emerged from, and stand opposed to, society and its competing groups. In concrete terms, the larger groups, which John’s collectivity opposes, include the (this) world (seventy-nine times in John; nine times in Matthew and three each in Mark and Luke), and the Judeans (seventy-one times in John; five times in Matthew and Luke; seven times in Mark).¹⁸ These groups refused to believe in Jesus as Israel’s Messiah and, therefore, the Johannine group stands over against them.

In Gospel terms, the anti-society that Jesus establishes can best be understood as the Kingdom of God, or even later in Acts and beyond as the church. The entrance of the Kingdom of God into society creates a new anti-society that remains in opposition to society. While the world and the Judeans hold tightly to social establishments of rank and distinction, the Kingdom of God creates equality for all people. The lowest member of society becomes empowered in the Kingdom of God, able to be an active member in the anti-societal gatherings (church), and even attain to a leadership role.¹⁹ These disenfranchised members of society find a voice in the anti-society of Jesus that they could never attain in the larger society. Distinctions of race, sex, or nationality no longer distinguish an individual. According to Paul, There is neither Jew nor Greek, there is neither slave nor free man, there is neither male nor female; for you are all one in Christ Jesus (Galatians 3:28). The main importance entails loyalty to the anti-society (Kingdom of God) and its central figure (Jesus Christ).

The Kingdom of God, as an