THE CODE MAKER

In the development of the laws of war in the 19th century, the author of the most influential American document on the subject was Francis Lieber, a Prussian academic who had emigrated to the United States in 1827, changing his name from Franz to Francis on his arrival. In many respects, however, Lieber fully embodied the American character of the time, particularly as the country split apart in the Civil War. An ardent Unionist, he had spent nearly 20 years as a professor of history and political economics at South Carolina College (now the University of South Carolina) and thus understood Southern institutions and perspectives well enough to know why he vehemently disagreed with them. His personal life also reflected the great American tragedy of that war—his eldest son was killed fighting for the Confederacy, while his two younger sons served in the Union army.

Lieber knew firsthand the worst aspects of unrestrained warfare.

Lieber was passionately interested in the legal questions that arose when armies had to operate in the midst of civilian populations, particularly ones that owed