Ancient Worlds and Civilizations Series

The most famous legacies of Mesopotamia are its human-headed, winged bulls and wedge-shaped writing system. Even though these objects offer a glimpse into an ancient culture's grandeur and mystery, the region's influence extends far beyond them. One of the first civilizations in the world, Mesopotamia is often called the "cradle of civilization." The civilization contributed to the development of written language, economics, law, and religion. The pages of this book discuss many of these contributions. In Mesopotamia, for example, the lunar calendar was divided into two seasons, and the year was divided into 12 months. There were seven days in a week in the Sumerian calendar. Sexagesimal, or base 60, mathematics survives to this day based on 60-minute hours and 24-hour days in Mesopotamia. The term Mesopotamia is typically used by historians to refer to the region in southwest Asia that includes modern-day Iraq and parts of Turkey, Iran, and Syria. Hellenistic Greeks used Mesopotamos to refer to the area between the Euphrates and Tigris rivers. Fertile soil and water provided by these rivers enabled humankind to abandon its nomadic hunter-gatherer lifestyle and become sedentary and agrarian. The agricultural revolution was born in Mesopotamia because of this feature. Almost 2,000 years ago, Mesopotamia had little information about itself. The history and culture of the region are revealed in the Hebrew Bible. During the fifth century BC, Herodotus described the area for the first time. Anabasis ("Upcountry March"), a Greek mercenary, historian, and philosopher's account of his experiences crossing Anatolia and traveling along the Tigris and Euphrates, was written over 100 years later. A Chaldean priest of Bel who migrated to Greece left behind some of the region's most detailed and reliable accounts, even though his writings are only extant in fragments.

The history of Ancient Egypt is one of the most fascinating in the world, with a rich cultural heritage that dates to 5000 BCE and a history that has been preserved through thousands of years. It was first unified as one kingdom around 3100 BCE by King Menes, who founded the First Dynasty. The country would continue to be ruled by kings until 332 BCE, when it became part of Alexander's Macedonian Empire. After Alexander died in 323 BCE, Egypt was ruled by Ptolemy I Soter, who founded the Ptolemaic Dynasty, which lasted until 30 B.C. when Cleopatra VII committed suicide after being defeated by Octavian at the Battle of Actium. Early Dynastic Period (circa 3100 to circa 2686 BCE): The Early Dynastic Period was the first of three periods in Egyptian history. It began around 3100 BCE and lasted until 2686 BCE when Egypt became a unified country. Egyptian civilization dates to 5500 BCE, although there is evidence of human settlement along the Nile River dating back as far as 10,000 BCE. During this time, Egypt was ruled mainly by many different groups with varying levels of organization and power. By 3000 BCE, however, it had become an independent country under its first pharaoh: Menes (reign c. 2950-2910 BC).

The Roman Empire was one of the most powerful empires in history. Its reach extended throughout Europe, into Africa, and as far as Asia. But how did Romans become such a dominant force? And what made them different from other civilizations in their day? In this book, we'll look at some of the critical moments that shaped Rome into what it was when it finally fell: how they rose to power and stayed there for so long. The Roman Empire began in the eighth century B.C. when a group of people known as Latins formed settlements and eventually turned into a city called Rome. The city was ruled by two kings, elected by the Senate (essentially a group of powerful men). The Romans conquered other peoples and became an empire that stretched from Spain to Turkey. Their armies were so strong that they could take on several enemies at once—and win!   The Roman Empire was the most powerful political entity in Western Europe, and its rise to power has been attributed to several factors: Rome's location at the center of several major trade routes allowed it to expand economically and socially. Romans were farming people who valued labor over leisure and were able to build substantial wealth through agriculture and trade. When Rome overthrew their kings in 509 BC, they established a republic with two consuls (a type of official) who held equal power. The consuls had authority over military matters and foreign policy; they also led religious rituals related to warfare, such as sacrifices before battle or upon returning home victorious from war. Finally, this combination of factors led Romans into conflict with neighboring territories—invading other lands led by conquest or threat of force until surrounding peoples became vassals under their rule.

In ancient Indian history, there were four significant eras as highlighted below, a quick introduction is important in order to digest the material in this book. Prehistoric era: From 500,000 BCE to 11,000 BCE, South Asian hunter-gatherers made stone tools and painted cave paintings at Bhimbetka during the Old and Middle Stone Ages. Merhgarh, in Baluchistan, was where South Asian farming began between 11,000 and 3000 years ago. From 2500 BCE to 1900 BCE, the great Indian cities of Mohenjo Daro and Harappa provide us with much archaeological evidence.   Eras of India: Vedic and post-Vedic, No Aryan invasion took place, but a nomadic group of Indo-European speakers migrated from Iran and Afghanistan, calling themselves Arya, or the noble. Over the past four millennia, Indo-Aryan culture has developed uniquely within India, blending the values and heritages of the Arya and indigenous peoples. In the Indo-European language family, the Rig Veda is the oldest text. Among the three Vedas and other complementary Vedic literature, it is a crucial text in Vedic Hinduism. We have today's vast agricultural infrastructure in north India due to the expansion of the Indo-Aryans from Punjab to the Ganga basin. Mahajanapadas (great states) were formed from the Vedic polity, which Magadha dominated. Northwest India was invaded by both the Persians and the Greeks later in this period. Ajivakas, Buddhists, and Jains objected to the caste system, animal sacrifices, brahman dominance, and the Vedas in Vedic Hinduism. The Great Empires lasted from about 300 BCE to c. AD 500. From Chandragupta Maurya's Arthashastra, an excellent manual of political economy, we can understand the principles of the Mauryan Empire, founded from Magadha in 321 BCE. With the help of many rock and pillar inscriptions, Ashoka humanized the empire and propagated Buddha's principles. The smaller Shaka, Kushan, and Satavahana kingdoms followed the Mauryan Empire. A flourishing agricultural industry and trade, both domestic and international, contributed significantly to Indian prosperity during this period. China and Rome dominated trade between India and China. According to the Samanta philosophy of tolerant neighborliness, the Gupta Empire followed a model of decentralized power. The Hindu-Buddhist-Jain civilization reached its peak of elitism under the Guptas. Classical Indian culture refers to that. Throughout history, Buddhism has remained popular but has evolved into Mahayana Buddhism, which emphasizes the Bodhisattva. Buddhism, Sanskrit literature, and mathematics flourished in this era, as at Ajanta.   The feudal era lasted from 500 AD to 1200 AD (and beyond). Among the most prominent post-Gupta regional and feudal kingdoms were those of King Harsha, the early Chalukyas, and the Pallavas. The kings maintained their power through large land grants, feudatory power, and patronage systems. During the eleventh and twelfth centuries, the aggressive and iconoclastic Turco-Afghans quickly invaded India due to the inter-Indian wars waged by the Gurjara-Pratihara, Pala, and Rashtrakuta kingdoms. The deep south remained highly dynamic and Hindu under the Pallavas and Cholas. The Vedic and Puranic forms of Hinduism gradually replaced Buddhism in India, while the holy and puranic forms of Hinduism stayed. Muslim power, embodied in the slave dynasty of Qutb-ud-Din Aybak, entrenched itself in north India from 1206 onward, paving the way for Indo-Islamic culture to flourish.

The Greek Empire's Territory in the year 478 BC, was geographically dominated by two peninsulas. Italy splits Europe into the eastern and western half, while Greece consists of two large peninsulas that extend from Europe into the Mediterranean. Separating the eastern region. The Greek world consisted of mainland Greece, the islands off its west coast, and the Aegean Sea, which separated mainland Greece from Asia Minor and was confined to the east by the coast of Asia Minor, the coast of Thrace, and the island of Crete. Mountains separate the Greek mainland into several, mostly minor, livable zones, while sea inlets split it into northern and central Greece and the Peloponnese, which are connected by the Corinth Isthmus. Egypt and the Near East developed advanced civilizations earlier than the northern and western regions. The most notable Greek colonies were in the south and east, and there was a tendency to seek interaction with and embrace the south and east cultures. The earliest sophisticated civilizations emerged in the Greek area during the bronze period. During the second millennium, the Minoan culture in Crete, the Cycladic culture in the Aegean, and the Mycenaean culture on the mainland all existed; starting about 1400, the Mycenaeans influenced Crete and the Cyclades. The Mycenaeans spoke Greek, but the Minoans spoke a different language, and no Cycladic writing remained. This was the location of heroic stories in ancient Greek literature. Large kingdoms supported life, centered on opulent palaces, and were governed by bureaucratic governments. During an era of calamity and population upheavals whose reasons are unclear, this planet vanished between 1200 and 1000 BCE.

The Aztec Empire, Rise and Fall is a captivating exploration of one of the most fascinating cultures in world history. From their mysterious origins in ancient Mesoamerica to their tragic demise at the hands of Spanish conquistadors, this book offers a comprehensive account of the Aztecs' rise to power, their legendary military prowess, and their complex religious beliefs and mythology. Beginning with a tour of the Aztec's stunning archaeological sites, readers are transported back in time to witness the birth of a civilization that would go on to dominate the Americas for centuries. From the towering pyramids of Tenochtitlan to the majestic temples of Teotihuacan, every aspect of Aztec culture is brought to life through vivid descriptions and stunning imagery. As the story unfolds, readers are treated to an in-depth examination of Aztec warfare, including their use of advanced weapons and tactics, and their ruthless treatment of defeated enemies. The book also delves into the complex religious beliefs and mythology of the Aztecs, including their worship of deities like Huitzilopochtli and Quetzalcoatl, and their gruesome practice of human sacrifice. But the Aztec's dominance would not last forever, and the book also details the arrival of the Spanish conquistadors and the catastrophic impact of their conquest. Through first-hand accounts and meticulous research, readers are transported to the heart of the conflict, witnessing the betrayal, brutality, and tragedy that marked the end of the Aztec civilization. "The Rise and Fall of the Aztec Civilization" is a thrilling journey through one of the most remarkable civilizations in human history. With its engaging prose, stunning visuals, and meticulous attention to detail, this book is a must-read for anyone interested in the fascinating world of ancient Mesoamerica.

Crete was inhabited by Neolithic cave dwellers around 7000 BC. Aside from their wood, stone, and bone tools, they also wore simple cloth, and their clothing was made from wood, stone, and bone. There is a good chance they came from Asia Minor, Syria, Palestine, or North Africa. Bull cults may have provided a clue to their origins in Neolithic Anatolia. Development was almost imperceptibly slow through migrations, influences, or internal dynamics over the next three thousand years. Domestic animals and essential crops were used in elementary agriculture. In addition to better-made domestic utensils and clay figurines of humans, animals, and pregnant women, pottery (the oldest samples found beneath the Palace at Knossos) became more sophisticated. The island of Milos also supplied obsidian. As the era wore on, simple rectangular mud-brick huts were built with increasing skill and complexity, although caves remained inhabited. Knossos was a crucial Neolithic settlement, two remarkable dwellings have been discovered beneath the Central Court, and there is abundant evidence that many other sites of later habitation were utilized at this time - Malia, Festos, Ayia Triadha, Hania area – as well as most of the caves that later became religiously significant. In the Bronze Age Crete was ruled by the Minoans. At the beginning of the twentieth century, Minoan Crete was transformed from myth to archeological reality. The Minoans and their language are still subject to considerable controversy, even over such fundamental details as their identity. Almost everything we know is derived from physical remains, fleshed out somewhat by writings from Classical Greece almost one thousand years after Knossos was destroyed since no written historical records exist from that time. However, the theories about the Minoans can be unified into some consensus, as we shall see below. Fresh discoveries will change this viewpoint radically in the future. The Minoan Civilization flourished in the Middle Bronze Age on the island of Crete in the eastern Mediterranean from c. 2700 BC to c. 1450 BC (following the Palaeolithic and Neolithic periods). The Minoans were a trading civilization that traded throughout the Eastern Mediterranean, as far north as Britain and as far east as Mesopotamia. The Minoans imported a wide variety of raw materials and manufactured goods from other civilizations, and then they exported their own products, including olive oil, wine, pottery, furniture, perfumes, and jewellery. According to archaeological evidence, the two palaces on the island of Crete at Knossos and Phaistos are considered the largest surviving palaces from antiquity; both were built around 1900 BCE.