A Text Book on Power Distribution and Distributed Generation

By Dr. Akhib Khan Bahamani, Dr. G.Srinivasulu Reddy, Mr D Venkatabrahmanaidu and 2 more

Worldwide, the effects of environmental, economic, social, political, and technical factors have led to the rapid deployment of various sources of renewable energy-based power generation. The incorporation of these generation technologies has led to the development of a broad array of new methods and tools to integrate this new form of generation into the power system networks. This book, comprises into five modules gives a comprehensive discussion on various renewable energy-based distributed generation (DG) technologies Module 1 discuss about the need for the distributed generation, Module 2 detailed description about the Distribution Generation Resources, Module 3 concern with the economic and control aspect of DG's, Module 4 Proposes to Introduction to electrical distribution system and finally in Module 5 ends with the classification and design features of distribution system

• Language: English
• Publisher: Authors Click Publishing
• Release date: Feb 3, 2024
• ISBN: 9788119368846

Book preview

A Text Book on

Power Distribution

and Distributed Generation

Authors

Dr. Akhib Khan Bahamani

Dr. G.Srinivasulu Reddy

Mr D Venkatabrahmanaidu

Dr. Prabhuraj S

Dr. GVK Murthy

PREFACE

Worldwide, the effects of environmental, economic, social, political, and technical factors have led to the rapid deployment of various sources of renewable energy-based power generation. The incorporation of these generation technologies has led to the development of a broad array of new methods and tools to integrate this new form of generation into the power system networks. This book, comprises into five modules gives a comprehensive discussion on various renewable energy-based distributed generation (DG) technologies as follows:

Module 1 discuss about the need for the distributed generation.

Module 2 detailed description about the Distribution Generation Resources

Module 3 concern with the economic and control aspect of DG’s

Module 4 Proposes to Introduction to electrical distribution system  

Module 5 ends with the classification and design features of distribution system

Though efforts have been taken aiming at a zero flaw content we do recognize that mistakes may have inadvertently crept in. We welcome constructive criticisms on and specific topic of this book.

AUTHORS

TABLE OF CONTENTS

MODULE – 1 ......................................................1-34

Need For Distribution Generation

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MODULE – 2 .....................................................35-88

Distribution Generation Resources

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MODULE – 3 ...................................................89-109

Economic And Control Aspects Of Dgs

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MODULE – 4 .................................................110-146

Introduction To Electrical Distribution Systems

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MODULE-5 ....................................................147-208

Classification & Design Features Of  Distribution System

MODULE – 1

NEED FOR DISTRIBUTION GENERATION

Distributed generation, features and operations, advantages and disadvantages of DG, Comparison among the DG Technologies, Non conventional and renewable energy sources. Grid Interconnection- Standards of interconnection, Recent trends in power electronic DG interconnection.

MODULE 1

NEED FOR DISTRIBUTED GENERATION

INTRODUCTION

Small size, compact, and clean electric power generating units at or near an electrical load (customer). But not all DG technologies and types are economic, clean or reliable. Distributed generation, also distributed energy, on-site generation (OSG) or district/decentralized energy, is electrical generation and storage performed by a variety of small, grid-connected or distribution system-connected devices referred to as distributed energy resources (DER).

Conventional power stations, such as coal-fired, gas, and nuclear powered plants, as well as hydroelectric dams and large-scale solar power stations, are centralized and often require electric energy to be transmitted over long distances.DER systems are decentralized, modular, and more flexible technologies that are located close to the load they serve, having capacities of only 10 megawatts (MW) or less. These systems can comprise multiple generation and storage components; in this instance, they are referred to as hybrid power systems.

Distributed generation (or DG) generally refers to small-scale (typically 1 kW – 50 MW) electric power generators that produce electricity at a site close to customers or that are tied to an electric distribution system. Distributed generators include, but are not limited to synchronous generators, induction generators, reciprocating engines, micro-turbines (combustion turbines that run on high-energy fossil fuels such as oil, propane, natural gas, gasoline or diesel), combustion gas turbines, fuel cells, solar photo-voltaic, and wind turbines.

Using non-conventional/renewable energy sources like natural gas, biogas, wind power, solar photovoltaic cells, fuel cells, combined heat and power (CHP) systems, micro turbines, and Stirling engines and their integration into the utility distribution network. This type of power generation is termed as Distributed generation (DG).

DER systems typically use renewable energy sources, including

Small hydro,

Biomass,

Biogas, 

Solar power,

Wind power, and

Geothermal power,

Distributed generation and storage enables the collection of energy from many sources and may lower environmental impacts and improve the security of supply. One of the major issues with the integration of the DER such as solar power, wind power, etc. is the uncertain nature of such electricity resources. This uncertainty can cause a few problems in the distribution system:

(i) it makes the supply-demand relationships extremely complex, and requires complicated optimization tools to balance the network, and

(ii) it puts higher pressure on the transmission network, and

(iii) it may cause reverse power flow from the distribution system to transmission system.

1.2 FEATURES OF DG

Distributed generation refers to the generation of electricity from many small, decentralized sources as opposed to a few large, centralized power plants. Distributed generation systems can vary widely in terms of technology and scale, but they share several common features:

Decentralization: Distributed generation systems are located close to the point of electricity consumption, reducing the need for extensive transmission and distribution infrastructure. This decentralization can improve grid reliability and reduce energy losses during transmission.

Diverse Technologies: Distributed generation encompasses a wide range of technologies, including solar panels, wind turbines, fuel cells, microturbines, and small natural gas generators. This diversity allows for flexibility in choosing the most suitable technology for specific locations and energy needs.

Renewable and Non-Renewable Sources: Distributed generation can utilize both renewable and non-renewable energy sources. While solar panels and wind turbines are popular for renewable energy generation, small natural gas generators or combined heat and power (CHP) systems can provide non- renewable distributed generation.

Energy Efficiency: Many distributed generation systems are designed to capture waste heat and use it for heating, cooling, or other industrial processes, increasing overall energy efficiency. Combined heat and power (CHP) systems are a prime example of this approach.

Reliability: Distributed generation can enhance the reliability of the electricity supply by providing backup power during grid outages. This is especially important for critical facilities such as hospitals, data centers, and emergency response centers.

Grid Integration: Distributed generation systems can be integrated into the existing electrical grid, allowing for two-way power flow. Excess electricity generated can be fed back into the grid, and power can be drawn from the grid when needed, creating a symbiotic relationship.

Environmental Benefits: Distributed generation from renewable sources reduces greenhouse gas emissions and air pollution compared to conventional fossil fuel- based power generation. This contributes to environmental sustainability and reduced carbon footprints.

Scalability: Distributed generation systems can be scaled up or down to meet specific energy demands. This scalability makes them suitable for a wide range of applications, from residential solar panels to industrial CHP systems.

Energy Independence: Distributed generation can provide a degree of energy independence to consumers and businesses. By generating their own electricity, they are less reliant on centralized utilities and can have more control over their energy costs.

Remote and Off-Grid Applications: Distributed generation is particularly valuable in remote or off-grid areas where access to a centralized grid is limited or expensive. In such cases, small-scale generators, often powered by renewables, can provide a reliable source of electricity.

Regulatory and Policy Considerations: Distributed generation may be subject to various regulations and policies depending on the location and technology used. Net metering, feed-in tariffs, and incentives for renewable energy can impact the economic viability of distributed generation projects.

Energy Storage Integration: Pairing distributed generation with energy storage systems, such as batteries, can enhance its effectiveness by storing excess energy for use during periods of low generation or high demand.

1.3 ADVANTAGES OF DISTRIBUTED GENERATION

Improved Reliability: DG can enhance grid reliability by providing backup power during grid outages. This is particularly valuable for critical facilities such as hospitals, data centers, and emergency services.

Reduced Transmission Losses: DG located close to consumers reduces energy losses during long-distance transmission, leading to higher energy efficiency.

Grid Support: DG can provide voltage and frequency support to the grid, helping stabilize it during fluctuations in supply and demand.

Environmental Benefits: When powered by renewable energy sources (e.g.. solar, wind), DG reduces greenhouse gas emissions and air pollution compared to conventional fossil fuel-based power generation.

Energy Independence: DG allows consumers and businesses to generate their own electricity, reducing reliance on centralized utilities and potentially lowering energy costs.

Scalability: DG systems can be easily scaled up or down to meet specific energy demands, making them suitable for various applications.

Diverse Technologies: DG encompasses a wide range of technologies, allowing flexibility in choosing the most suitable technology for specific locations and energy needs.

Reduced Line Congestion: By generating electricity closer to where it's needed, DG can alleviate congestion on transmission and distribution lines, reducing the need for costly upgrades.

1.4 DISADVANTAGES OF DISTRIBUTED GENERATION

Intermittency: Renewable energy sources like solar and wind can be intermittent, leading to variability in DG output, which can pose challenges for grid integration and reliability.

Costs: The upfront costs of DG systems, especially renewable energy installations, can be relatively high. However, they often have long-term cost savings.

Grid Integration Challenges: Integrating DG into existing grids can be complex, requiring upgrades and changes to grid infrastructure and control systems.

Regulatory and Policy Barriers: Regulations and policies governing DG can vary widely by region and can impact the economic viability of DG projects. These barriers can hinder adoption.

Maintenance and Operation: DG systems require ongoing maintenance and operation, which can be a burden for some consumers, particularly residential users.

Land and Space Requirements: Some DG technologies, such as wind turbines and biomass facilities, require significant land or space, which may not be available in densely populated areas.

Noise and Aesthetic Concerns: Certain DG technologies, like wind turbines or backup generators, can generate noise and may be considered aesthetically unappealing by some.

Energy Storage Needs: To fully capitalize on intermittent renewable sources, DG systems may need energy storage solutions like batteries, adding complexity and cost.

Technical Challenges: DG can introduce technical challenges such as power quality issues and protection coordination, which need to be addressed for safe and reliable operation.

Limited Capacity: DG systems typically have limited capacity compared to large centralized power plants, which may not be sufficient for some industrial applications or densely populated areas.

1.5 TYPES OF DISTRIBUTED GENERATION  

Distribution generation typically refers to the generation of electricity on a smaller, decentralized scale closer to the point of consumption rather than from large centralized power plants. Various technologies and sources can be used for distributed generation. Here are some different types of distributed generation:

Solar Photovoltaic (PV) Systems: Solar panels convert sunlight into electricity. They are commonly installed on rooftops, in residential, commercial, and industrial settings, and in solar farms.

Wind Turbines: Wind turbines capture kinetic energy from the wind and convert it intoelectricity. They can be found in both onshore and offshore locations, ranging from small residential turbines to large utility-scale wind farms.

Microturbines: Microturbines are small combustion turbines that burn natural gas or other fuels to generate electricity. They are often used in combined heat and power (CHP) applications for both electricity and heat production.

Fuel Cells: Fuel cells generate electricity through an electrochemical process, typically using hydrogen or natural gas as fuel. They are used in various applications, including backup power, stationary power generation, and transportation.

Internal Combustion Engines (ICE): ICE generators use traditional internal combustion engines, such as diesel or natural gas engines, to produce electricity. They are commonly used for backup and standby power.

Biomass and Biogas Systems: Biomass systems burn organic materials like wood,agricultural residues, or dedicated energy crops to generate electricity. Biogas systems use organic waste, such as sewage or agricultural waste, to produce biogas, which isthen used for power generation.

Hydropower: Small-scale hydropower systems, including run-of-river and small dams, harness the energy of flowing water to generate electricity.

Geothermal Systems: Geothermal power plants use heat from the Earth's interior to generate electricity. They can be decentralized and used for direct heating as well.

Tidal and Wave Energy: Tidal and wave energy converters capture the kinetic energy from ocean tides and waves to generate electricity. These technologies are typically deployed in coastal areas.

Nuclear Small Modular Reactors (SMRs): SMRs are smaller nuclear reactors designed for distributed generation and remote locations. They use nuclear fission to produce electricity.

Combined Heat and Power (CHP) Systems: CHP systems, also known as cogeneration systems, simultaneously produce electricity and useful heat from a single energy source, such as natural gas or biomass. They are highly efficient and used in various applications.

Hybrid Systems: Some distributed generation installations combine multiple technologies, such as solar panels with energy storage or wind turbines with a backup generator, to enhance reliability and energy production.

Community Solar Projects: These are shared solar installations that allow multiple individuals or entities to benefit from a single solar PV system, often used in communities or for individuals who cannot install solar panels on their own properties.

1.6 COMPARISON OF DIFFERENT DG TECHNOLOGIES

Distributed generation (DG) encompasses a wide range of technologies for generating electricity on a smaller, decentralized scale. Each DG technology has its own advantages, disadvantages, and suitability for specific