Changing Landscapes in Urban British Churchyards

By Sylvia E. Thornbush and Mary J Thornbush

This interdisciplinary reference work presents a linked consideration, to the reader, of physical-cultural (physicocultural) representations of headstones located in urban churchyards in England and Scotland. The geomorphology of landscapes relevant to these locations is explained with the help of detailed case studies from Oxford and Edinburgh. The integrated physicocultural approach addresses the conservation of the archaeological record and presents a cross-temporal perspective of landscape change – of the headstones as landforms in their landscape (as part of deathscapes). The physical record (of headstones) is examined in the context of both cultural representation and change. In this way, an integrated approach is employed that connects the physical (natural) and cultural (social) records kept by historians and archeologists over the years.

Changing Landscapes in Urban British Churchyards is of interest to geomorphologists, historians and scholars interested in understanding landscaping studies and cultural nuance of specific historical urban sites in England and Scotland.

• Language: English
• Publisher: Bentham Science Publishers
• Release date: Apr 27, 2020
• ISBN: 9789811441264

Book preview

Table of Contents

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General:

PREFACE

CONFLICT OF INTEREST

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Introduction

Abstract

SCOPE

RESEARCH QUESTIONS

Aims

Objectives

Social, Economic, and Cultural Factors

Religiosity

Spatiality

CONCLUSION

CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

REFERENCES

Study Area

Abstract

ENGLAND

OXFORD

YORK

St. Deny

Holy Trinity

St. Olave

SCARBOROUGH

St. Mary’s

SCOTLAND

INVERNESS

Old High

DUNBAR

Dunbar Parish

EDINBURGH

Canongate

Greyfriars

St. Cuthbert

CONCLUSION

CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

REFERENCES

Research Methods

Abstract

SITE METHODS

Site Sampling

Incorporating Other Influences

City and Town Sampling

FIELD METHODS

Photographic Analysis

DATA ANALYSIS

Statistical Methods

OTHER APPROACHES

Bag-of-Words Model (Salton & McGill, 1986)

Lines Approach (Developed by the Lead Author)

AN ONLINE DATABASE

CONCLUSION

CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

REFERENCES

Geometric Properties: Shape

Abstract

INTRODUCTION

RESULTS

DISCUSSION

CONCLUSION

CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

REFERENCES

Geometric Properties: Dimensions and Social Status

Abstract

INTRODUCTION

RESULTS

DISCUSSION

Headstone Size Variability

Standardisation of Headstone Size

The Northerly and Temporal Increase in Headstone Size

Decreasing Headstone Size with Age at Death

CONCLUSION

CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

REFERENCES

Mortality, Salvation, and Remembrance Motifs

Abstract

INTRODUCTION

RESULTS

DISCUSSION

Locality and Temporal Factors

Popular Motifs

Introduction of New Motifs

Motifed versus Unmotifed Headstones

Motif Seriation

CONCLUSION

CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

REFERENCES

Inscriptions: Introductions

Abstract

INTRODUCTION

RESULTS

DISCUSSION

Spatial Distribution and Variation of Headstone Introductions

CONCLUSION

CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

REFERENCES

Inscriptions and Fonts

Abstract

INTRODUCTION

Inscriptions

RESULTS

DISCUSSION

Location and Font Variation

Socioeconomic Influences on Font Use

CONCLUSION

CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

REFERENCES

Influences on Epitaphs

Abstract

INTRODUCTION

RESULTS

DISCUSSION

Epitaph Length over Time

Economic Influences

Religious Influences

Social Influences

Epitaph Length and Headstone Size

Mortality, Salvation, and Remembrance Influences on Epitaphs

The Motif-to-Epitaph Progression

CONCLUSION

CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

REFERENCES

Conclusion

Abstract

SUMMARY

LIMITATIONS

Site Maps

Church Records

Photographs

A Gap in the Record

Weathering Issues

Sample Size

Research Resources

FUTURE STUDIES

CONCLUSION

CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

REFERENCES

APPENDIX A: HEADSTONE DETAILS FOR ENGLAND, UK

APPENDIX B: HEADSTONE DETAILS FOR SCOTLAND, UK

Changing Landscapes in Urban British Churchyards

Authored by

S. E. Thornbush

School of History, Classics and Archaeology,

University of Edinburgh,

Scotland,

UK

&

Mary J. ThornbushOriel College,

University of Oxford,

England,

UK

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PREFACE

This Book is a collaborative work between an archaeologist with research expertise in historical archaeology and a geomorphologist with research interests in applied (environmental) geomorphology and landscape change. As an interdisciplinary work, the book provides a linked consideration of physical-cultural (physicocultural) representations of headstones located in urban churchyards in England and Scotland, with detailed case studies from 13 urban churchyards located in six urban centres, including two coastal sites. The integrated physicocultural approach that becomes apparent by the end of the volume addresses the conservation of the archaeological record and presents a cross-temporal perspective of headstones as part of deathscapes. The physical record (of headstones) is examined in the context of cultural representation and change. In this way, an integrated approach is employed that connects physical and cultural aspects of the material record.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST

The authors confirm that the content of this book has no conflict of interest.

S. E. Thornbush

School of History, Classics and Archaeology,

University of Edinburgh,

Scotland,

UK

&

Mary J. Thornbush

Oriel College,

University of Oxford,

England,

UK

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

S. E. Thornbush, School of History, Classics and Archaeology, University of Edinburgh, William Robertson Wing, Old Medical School, Teviot Place, Edinburgh, EH8 9AG, Scotland, UK.

The lead author has been investigating headstones located in urban churchyards since 2006, with research interests in motifs and iconography, seriation, and cross-temporal change (as part of historical archaeology, with a focus on Victorian material culture). She has co-authored a book on the use of photography to capture landscape change.

Mary J. Thornbush, Oriel College, University of Oxford, Oriel Square, Oxford, England, OX1 4EW, UK.

The second author has research expertise within geomorphology that is applied to the conservation of heritage stoneworks, including historical buildings and most recently memorials. She has published in various international journals and is the lead editor and author of seven books. Dr. Thornbush is an avid reviewer of books and academic journals and sits on several journal editorial boards.

Introduction

S.E. Thornbush, Mary J. Thornbush

Abstract

The first chapter introduces the historical archaeological approach adopted. Background is provided with inputs from historical archaeological frameworks as well as a cross-temporal approach that employs seriation as a method. The chapter presents the research questions and conceptual framework for the book as well as an outline of its contents. The classic archaeological study by Dethlefsen and Deetz is comparatively introduced alongside other influencing factors on funerary architecture and art, encompassing social, economic, cultural, religious, and spatial aspects.

Keywords: Anglican, Consumer choice theory, Cultural influences, Culture-historical approach, Headstone, Motifs, Parish churchyards/kirkyards, Presbyterian, Religious influences, Social influences, Spatiality, Stylistic changes.

This ebook investigates over a thousand headstones located in English churchyards and Scottish kirkyards situated in urban centres northwest of London to Inverness. These headstones provide information obtained from direct field measurements and observations, which will be outlined later in this chapter.

This chapter commences by setting and explaining the scope as well as aims and objectives of the research, with some attention given to the methodology used by Dethlefsen and Deetz (1966), as the guiding study influencing this work. The approaches and findings of their classic study are compared to the findings of this British study and, although there are dissimilar features, some of their conclusions support our research findings.

SCOPE

This research examines headstones as artefacts – part of material culture – and a living part of the archaeological record. As a research subject, headstones – referred to in various studies as gravestones, tombstones, and markers – provide opportunities for research of a social, economic, cultural, and religious nature. This is done by investigating and recording their morphological features (e.g. dimensions, epitaphs, motifs, inscriptions, introductions, and shapes) without ign-

oring the environment in which they are found, which can have a direct influence on the appearance of these funerary monuments.

This environmental influence, however, could also work against this type of research, particularly when destroying the material of these headstones. In fact, badly weathered headstones will appear more in windy or damp sites, despite having different weathering processes (physical, chemical, or biological) act on their surface layers. Today, this is of particular interest and relevance in cultural research as weathering affects the integrity of the historical archaeological record and its preservation.

Although this research was inspired by a need to establish a comparative study between England and Scotland, it was also born from an interest in recording at-risk monuments that are vulnerable to harsh environments. In this case, pollution-laden environments that chemically speed up the dissolution of stone (i.e. historical headstones) within cities or towns in England and Scotland. Exposed coastal sites, susceptible to physical weathering from wind and salt action, were another important consideration. These vulnerable sites are appropriate because of their accessibility and available connection to historic events, which could help to understand the stylistic choices evident on these monuments.

Initially, the east coast of Britain was the area of interest, with fast-paced coastal erosion evident there (particularly near Hornsea). The use of coastal sites could be compared to inland sites for the level of weathering, which can be assessed through the proportion of il/legible headstones. In fact, Scarborough located in the northern English East Coast is particularly susceptible to erosional destruction. As harsh environments threaten the preservation of this cultural resource, more work is required to maintain the existing record. Keeping a digital (photographic) record of these monuments could at least retain an impression of their current appearance and stand as a baseline for future comparisons and studies.

This particular research has been carried out by the authors since 2006 to ensure that at least a digital record remains to preserve the information conveyed by these headstones as well as their properties, including inscriptions and motifs, which are commonly destroyed by weathering processes. A database of photographs and headstone details has been created of all upright, legible, and dated headstones located in a selection of English churchyards in Oxford, York, and Scarborough and Scottish kirkyards in Dunbar, Edinburgh, and Inverness.

Amongst these, an inland or ‘main’ city was chosen in England and Scotland. The choice of a ‘main’ city was based on available headstones and on accessible churchyards and kirkyards within these sites. However, these ‘main’ cities would need to be as close as possible to coastal sites. Thus, Edinburgh and Dunbar were a clear choice. However, the English sites were more challenging to ascertain. Although Scarborough was the ideal coastal site, the ‘main’ city would need to be as close to this location as possible, but also have headstones in churchyards. For this reason, York was chosen to represent the ‘main’ site in England. These locations were chosen to reflect the main morphological changes found on funerary monuments, particularly on headstones, throughout the 17th and 19th centuries.

RESEARCH QUESTIONS

The research questions presented in this section were used to help direct the overall aims and objectives of this study. Two main research questions were posed and detailed below.

Aims

The aims of this research are two-fold. First, it is meant to compare a classic study (Dethlefsen & Deetz, 1966) to chosen UK churchyards. By making this comparison, it will be possible to discover whether commemorative patterns remain similar from such great distances (i.e. Britain and America). It is true that any similarities can be explained through religiosity, as religious practices will hold true regardless of location. Other explanations could be derived from sociocultural and socioeconomic influences that could also have had an effect through the cost of materials, status, and the economy of the time – all of which would have been maintained through the connections between countries. Second, it is important to establish a digital photographic record that could be accessed by headstone researchers. Despite there being several online databases that offer a vast array of headstone images – and some with usable headstone details, such as measurements – these are not consistent and vary in quality.

Objectives

The overarching objectives of this study involve exploring different features of the headstone to decipher how they have changed through time for each city and town in the investigation. Seriations and graphs will be created to help interpret these findings. Moreover, the use of a classic study (Dethlefsen & Deetz, 1966) alongside two theories: namely, culture historical and consumer choice, will help to decipher any differences in headstone styles throughout England and Scotland.

1. Are the findings in the Dethlefsen and Deetz (1966) study from New England encountered in England and Scotland?

There were several interesting findings in the study by Dethlefsen and Deetz (1966), which helped to identify changes in religious beliefs (notably the breakdown of Puritan thinking in the 17th and 18th centuries), the pattern of diffusion of motifs, and changes to epitaphs. There was a distinct pattern of diffusion of (headstone) motifs in Cambridge, Concord, and Plymouth cemeteries in Massachusetts, USA, with the Death’s head motif (usually a winged skull) being replaced by the cherub motif, followed by the urn-and-willow motif.

The geographical location (e.g. the cemetery) in which certain styles became popular was identified as being related to religious change, in which the cherub motif (with its symbolic reference to heaven and the afterlife) may have been viewed as a departure from Puritan beliefs. Although this is a simplified view, it is a good basis for starting a research investigation to discover similar aspects of funerary monumentation.

In fact, Dethlefsen and Deetz (1966) found an interesting temporal pattern within three New England cemeteries, such as that in Plymouth cemetery the Death’s head motif was used over a decade earlier than in the other two cemeteries. The second interesting finding indicated that there was a religious influence on the phraseology used in epitaphs – these linguistic features marked a period of strong Puritanism with the use of ‘mortality-inspired’ words, which later became lighter in tone (and referenced the afterlife instead of death), indicating a modification in the perceptions of bereavement in New England. Although both findings show that there were similarities in designs on headstones (including epitaphs), the important aspect is that their geographical location might have affected the styles used at a specific time due to cultural diffusion.

According to Birch (2010, p. 10), temporal and spatial patterning can reveal more about social, economic, and religious influences. Consequently, the changing stylistic features of headstones across New England reveal more about the people who erected these stones for their loved ones. The purpose of this research question is to determine whether similar, clear changes can be identified in England and Scotland, and locally within each location (and between sites).

Social, Economic, and Cultural Factors

With the advent of a growing economy from the 18th century, social influences within urban environments became apparent through fashion trends (i.e. stylistic changes evident on headstones) that stemmed from growing wealth due to agriculture and trade. Later, ostentation in commemorative practices in the Victorian period was governed by the financial means of the individual, but was not limited to class (Cannon et al., 1989, p. 438). According to Laqueur (1983, p. 109), the status of burial was important in establishing an image in the public eye. It could be created through ostentation for the middle and possibly lower classes. Consequently, individuals could attain elevated status at death by demonstrating the extent of their wealth, and these practices could have affected the way in which people expressed themselves through commemoration.

However, according to Healey (1967, p. 267), restrictions related to a ‘right to burial’ when the right to erect a monument required church approval. Nevertheless, the stylistic changes or patterns that are identified in this research will need to be evaluated based on different factors, such as a growing economy (e.g. in the 18th century) or migration patterns (e.g. Irish, rural influences) as well as common expressions at death that cut across socioeconomic structures.

Thus, building an understanding of the links associated with the variation of design could be beneficial in discovering the similarities between this research and that of Dethlefsen and Deetz (1966). Unique stylistic changes in British headstones could be established both spatially (e.g. coastal sites, ‘main’ cities, and northerly and southerly locations in Britain) and temporally (e.g. between the 17th and 19th centuries), revealing the differences in commemoration that developed at both locations within this period.

Religiosity

Religious influences played an integral role in the changing styles of funerary monumentation. In New England, for instance, changing motif styles were, for the most part, attributed to changing attitudes towards death. For example, the Death’s head motif symbolised Puritan views regarding death and the afterlife, while the emergence of the cherub, and later urn-and-willow tree, marked a dilution of these beliefs.

In this case, religion would have influenced the way families and individuals viewed death, and funerary design reflected these views. Furthermore, any restrictions placed on living parishioners – on their approach to commemorating their dead – would impact these stylistic choices (e.g. consumer choice). Any distinctions could be reflected in the differences in headstone styles between churchyards and kirkyards, indicating how death was celebrated in Anglican and Presbyterian parishes, particularly as funerals and monuments would have a lasting impact on the way individuals and their families were perceived within society.

The main ambition in this study is to establish the significant differences in style within England and Scotland in the 17th to 19th centuries after the Protestant Reformation. Did the Presbyterian and Anglican (and Tractarian) outlooks influence the way that these commemorative monuments were presented? In other words, were these monuments distinct from those found in 19th century New England?

Spatiality

The influence of location on headstone design should generate unique stylistic patterns between all sites, which could display distinct styles specific to each location, alongside those that were used more widely at the national level. Therefore, it is expected that coastal sites will have some differences in styles (e.g. motifs) to those inland sites (e.g. York, Edinburgh, and Oxford) and to the northern location (e.g. Inverness).

Moreover, it is expected that sites located further away are more disparate in their commemorative style (e.g. Oxford versus Inverness – Oxford’s historical link to London could influence its commemoration practices). Did the values of the people at each location differ considerably? Would these values be manifest in the headstone features identified at each location?

Other locational impacts would be transport links (e.g. train, ships). Was there much internal migration in each country before rail? Snell’s (2003) study on commemoration indicated that migrants’ headstones were influenced by the fact that they migrated and later died in a different location from where they were born or grew up. Migrants were vehicles of culture, bringing with them their own sociocultural beliefs and traditions. Referencing the place of birth could be found on these monuments.

Therefore, changes in commemorative styles would be expected to change with space as well as time alongside social, economic, and religious factors. The use of seriation tables will help to determine trends within each location to ease comparisons.

2. How applicable are the culture historical perspective and consumer choice theory in this research?

A culture historical perspective could help to explain the process of diffusion using headstone designs. Through the use of seriation tables, different headstone styles could be grouped within each site and location to identify different or unique burial traditions or ‘cultures’, and to identify evidence of acculturation within these areas by migrants or within classes. Is the process of diffusion evident within each location or between locations? Borrowing styles could be indicative of strong cultural beliefs and practices as well as established social groups.

Consumer choice can be helpful to interpret any changes in headstone numbers, designs, and other features, such as headstone dimensions. When analysed comparatively, the results could help to evaluate any differences and similarities between cities, such as Oxford and Inverness. The inclusion of historical data can also be used to define any changes in headstone styles within the identified period.

CONCLUSION

The locations chosen in this research were not only connected by an east-leaning transect, but by either religious practices or socioeconomic influences. These helped to foster both similarities and differences in headstone design throughout the study area. The similar histories as well as connections discovered helped to develop a further understanding of the stylistic changes of headstones and, therefore, changing deathscapes.

In this way, connected histories could be used to explain similarities in headstone styles. The layout of the churchyard and kirkyard is a good example of this, as headstones were commonly organised with the oldest graves placed south of the church or kirk. This was thought to be a desirable place for burial, as it was not shadowed by the church and kirk, unlike in the north side. Superstitious beliefs associated with the Devil lurking in the darkness were prominent and influenced the locationality of these stones within each site. In fact, suicides and unbaptised burials were commonly evident in the north side of the churchyard and kirkyard.

However, the location of headstones in the churchyard or kirkyard would not only be influenced by religious influence or the occult, but also by a change in demographics. With the advent of overpopulation in capital cities, for example, and the onset of disease, overcrowding within each site would have had an impact on headstone size and design as well as whether a headstone was erected at all in order to utilise all areas of the burial site (Wright, 1996, p. 6). Nevertheless, churchyards and kirkyards maintained a structured pattern of headstone displays at all locations.

On the other hand, can the proximity of certain sites (e.g. Edinburgh and Dunbar, York and Scarborough) have an impact on the similarities of headstone design? Could similarities and greater connectivity be pronounced later in the 19th century due to available transport links? Moreover, are there distinct similarities in stylistic design between sites at each location? Overall, any similarities and differences in headstone style within the six locations will help to interpret commemorative practices in England and Scotland between the 17th and 19th centuries.

CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION

Not applicable.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Declared none.

REFERENCES