Advanced Reactor Concepts (ARC): A New Nuclear Power Plant Perspective Producing Energy

By Ali Zamani Paydar, Seyed Kamal Mousavi Balgehshiri and Bahman Zohuri

Nuclear engineers advancing the energy transition are understanding more about the next generation of nuclear plants; however, it is still difficult to access all the critical types, concepts, and applications in one location. Advanced Reactor Concepts (ARC): A New Nuclear Power Plant Perspective Producing Energy gives engineers and nuclear engineering researchers the comprehensive tools to get up to date on the latest technology supporting generation IV nuclear plant systems. After providing a brief history of this area, alternative technology is discussed such as electromagnetic pumps, heat pipes as control devices, Nuclear Air-Brayton Combined Cycles integration, and instrumentation helping nuclear plants to provide dispatchable electricity to the grid and heat to industry. Packed with examples of all the types, benefits, and challenges involved, Advanced Reactor Concepts (ARC) delivers the go-to reference that engineers need to advance safe nuclear energy as a low-carbon option.

• Describes theory and concepts on generation IV technology such as advanced reactor concepts (ARC) and electromagnetic pumps, and compares different types and sizes.
• Sets out the energy transition with critical carbon-free technology that can supplement intermittent power sources such as wind and solar.
• Explains alternative heat storage technology, including Nuclear Air-Brayton Combined Cycles.
• Introduces advanced main instrumentation systems for in-core probes.

• Language: English
• Publisher: Elsevier Science
• Release date: Jul 20, 2023
• ISBN: 9780443189906

Ali Zamani Paydar

Ali Zamani Paydar is currently a nuclear engineer researcher and mechanical engineer, studying advanced reactor technology from the perspective of deploying emerging advanced nuclear reactor concepts. Ali earned a bachelor’s degree in atomic physics from the University of Tehran and earned his master’s degree in nuclear engineering from Amirkabir University of Technology (Tehran Polytechnic). After graduation, he pursued his career as a nuclear researcher and mechanical engineer, specifically in the field of thermal hydraulics and heat transfer of Pressurized Water Reactors (PWR). His main areas of focus are computational fluid dynamics and thermal hydraulics of nuclear reactors from a safety perspective in situations such as boiling, flow instability, and critical heat flux in generation IV nuclear reactors and strategic plans for the proper development of this technology in human life. He has published several papers and books on nuclear technology.

Book preview

9780443189906_FC

Advanced Reactor Concepts (ARC)

A New Nuclear Power Plant Perspective Producing Energy

First Edition

Ali Zamani Paydar

Amirkabir University of Technology, Tehran, Iran

Seyed Kamal Mousavi Balgehshiri

Amirkabir University of Technology, Tehran, Iran

Bahman Zohuri

Golden Gate University, San Francisco, CA, United States

publogo

Table of Contents

Cover

Title page

Copyright

Dedication

About the authors

Preface

Acknowledgments

Chapter 1: Next generation nuclear plant (NGNP)

Abstract

1.1: Introduction

1.2: Licensing strategy components history

1.3: Generation IV systems

1.4: Next generation of nuclear reactors for power production

1.5: Goals for generation IV nuclear energy systems

1.6: Why we need to consider the future role of nuclear power plant (NPP) now

1.7: The generation IV roadmap project

1.8: Market and industry status and potentials

1.9: Barriers

1.10: Needs

1.11: Key enablers for small modular reactor (SMR) deployment

1.12: Synergies with other sectors

1.13: Small modular nuclear power reactors (SMRs)

1.14: Advanced small modular nuclear power reactors (aSMR)

1.15: Benefits of small modular nuclear reactors

1.16: Modular construction using small reactor units

1.17: Versatile test reactor (VTR)

1.18: Advanced reactor concepts (ARC)

1.19: Advanced reactor concepts ARC-100 driven by ARC, LLC

1.20: Natrium advanced reactor driven nuclear energy for electricity

1.21: Combined cycle gas power plant

1.22: Power conversion driven by natrium advanced reactor

1.23: Combined cycle summary and recommendations

1.24: Conclusions

References

Chapter 2: Electromagnetic pump and LMFBR concept

Abstract

2.1: Introduction

2.2: Electromagnetic theory and concept

2.3: Working principle of electromagnetic pump

2.4: Electromagnetic pump types

2.5: System reliability

2.6: Magnetohydrodynamic power generation

2.7: Analysis and design of electromagnetic using COMSOL multiphysics

2.8: Electromagnetic pump reliability

2.9: Working principle of the annular linear induction pump (ALIP)

2.10: Advantages and limitations of electromagnetic pumps

2.11: Brief summary of electromagnetic pump

2.12: Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) electromagnetic pump

2.13: Electromagnetic pump design and size consideration

2.14: Conclusion

References

Further reading

Chapter 3: Nuclear power reactions driven radiation hardening environments

Abstract

3.1: Introduction

3.2: Radiation environment in nuclear power plants

3.3: Design basis accident, loss of coolant accident (LOCA)

3.4: Shielding of ionizing radiation

3.5: Shielding of radiation in nuclear power plants

3.6: Neutron reflector

3.7: Shielding of various types of radiation

3.8: Radiation shielding in naval nuclear-powered propulsions

3.9: Nuclear radiation shielding protection and halving thickness values

3.10: Artificial intelligence for nuclear radiation protection applications

3.11: Conclusions

References

Chapter 4: Heat pipe application driven fission nuclear power plant

Abstract

4.1: Introduction

4.2: Heat pipe description

4.3: Heat pipe components

4.4: Heat pipe materials and working fluids

4.5: Different types of heat pipes

4.6: Benefits of heat pipe devices

4.7: Limitations of heat pipe devices

4.8: Heat pipe theory and operation

4.9: Heat pipe technologies

4.10: Intermediate heat exchanger (IHX)

4.11: Heat pipe application driven heat exchanger

4.12: Nuclear power conversion integrated heat pipes

4.13: Integrated heat pipe and efficiency

4.14: Heat pipe and thermosyphons

4.15: Direct reactor auxiliary cooling system (DRACS)

4.16: Conclusions

References

Chapter 5: Nuclear thermal hydraulics: Heat, water, and nuclear power safety

Abstract

5.1: Introduction

5.2: Nuclear reactor safety systems

5.3: Role of thermal hydraulics driving nuclear reactors

5.4: Basic equations for thermal hydraulic system analysis

References

Further reading

Chapter 6: Traversing in-core probe (TIP) system, nuclear instrumentation, and control

Abstract

6.1: Introduction

6.2: Components

6.3: System features and interfaces

6.4: Traversing in-core probe perspective

6.5: Gamma traversing in-core probe description

6.6: Neutron TIPs

6.7: Wide range neutron monitors

6.8: Conclusion

References

Chapter 7: Heated junction thermocouple system

Abstract

7.1: Introduction

7.2: Thermocouple junction and type: Basic guide

7.3: Thermoelectric effect

7.4: Full thermoelectric equations

7.5: Thermoelectric applications

7.6: Design description of the heated junction thermocouple (HJTC)

7.7: Technical description of the reactor vessel internals changes

7.8: Nuclear reactor safety system

7.9: What are thermocouple junctions and why are they important?

7.10: Conclusion

References

Chapter 8: Gamma thermometer (GT) system

Abstract

8.1: Introduction

8.2: History of gamma thermometer

8.3: Gamma thermometer factory calibration (FC)

8.4: Joule method

8.5: Internal heater wire method

8.6: Void fraction response and bypass subcooling

8.7: Delayed gamma compensation

8.8: Conclusions

References

Appendix A: Electromagnetic pump insulation material

A: Introduction

B: CRGO making and using grain-oriented electrical steel

C: Making and using CRNGO nonoriented electrical steels

Reference

Index

Copyright

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Dedication

To my parents.

Ali Zamani Paydar

To my parents.

Seyed Kamal Mousavi Balgehshiri

To my son, Sasha Zohuri, and my grandchildren, Dariush, Donya, and Kian.

Bahman Zohuri

About the authors

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Mr. Ali Zamani Paydar is currently working on advanced reactor technology, looking at it from the perspective of technology and the challenges of deploying emerging advanced nuclear reactor concepts. Advanced small modular reactors are shaping the future of nuclear energy, where the technology has a competitive advantage and, due to the diversity of existing designs, can provide suitable options for countries’ energy policy makers. He earned a bachelor’s degree in atomic physics from the University of Tehran and after graduating, he started studying laser applications in various industries. Due to their unique nature, lasers have found applications in almost in every field of human activities, such as science, medicine, industry, agriculture, entertainment or informatics. In fact, it is the application that decides what properties are essential in the laser for the successful implementation of an activity. For example, high coherence of laser is essential in holographic applications, whereas this plays a nominal role in range finding or in laser light shows.

His interest in electronics, mechanics, and the use of artificial intelligence technology in robotics led to the construction of a rover robot. This robot was able to move over difficult obstacles and also had a mechanical arm for lifting weights of up to 25 g. With the construction of this robot, he won the top position in the Khwarizmi Festival, which is held every year in Iran. The Khwarizmi International Award for research is given annually in Iran. The awardees—10 senior researchers and 10 junior researchers—are selected by the Iranian Research Organization for Science and Technology (IROST), which honors individuals who have made outstanding achievements in research, innovation and invention, in fields related to science and technology. The award is given to the most prominent scientists and engineers, with a recent emphasis on digital and mechanical technologies, and is generally considered as the most prestigious scientific award in Iran. Participation is open to non-Iranian researchers.

Mr. Paydar pursued a master’s degree in nuclear engineering (atomic reactors) from Amirkabir University of Technology. His research areas focused mainly on reactor core design from the perspective of preventing the occurrence of critical heat flux (CHF) and determining the hydraulic diameter of subchannels in order to prevent the occurrence of such these phenomena by using Ansys Fluent software and computational fluid dynamics (CFD) calculations. He completed his studies on the topic of two-phase flow and heat transfer. He then carried out research in the area of fluid mechanics and nuclear thermohydraulics. He has written several papers on the fourth generation of nuclear reactors.

He continued many works and research in this field, including the pressurized test loop (PTL) project. The PTL facility is a system that simulates the thermohydraulic behavior of nuclear power plants that are built on a smaller scale than common large reactors. Understanding thermohydraulic phenomena and heat transfer from the perspective of test loops is very important and requires fluid dynamics calculations to be performed correctly.

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Mr. Seyed Kamal Mousavi Balgehshiri is currently doing strategic studies on the programs and strategies of different countries in the field of nuclear energy and reviewing global trends in the development of advanced nuclear reactors. At present, different countries are pursuing different strategies and goals to ensure energy security while reducing the effects of climate change, so that short-term decision-making in the present will have long-term effects. One of his favorite fields of work is strategic planning in the field of energy and SWOT (strength, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats) analysis macro-planning for nuclear energy as a researcher. Accurate analysis of current situation of companies and organizations is one of the most important factors for the success of companies in adopting appropriate strategies to achieve their goals.

He has a bachelor’s degree in chemical engineering from the University of Tabriz, where he was working mostly in laboratories related to the chemical analysis science. Subsequently, he pursued a master’s degree in nuclear engineering in the nuclear fuel cycle and materials field at Amirkabir University of Technology. While studying, he began researching advanced nuclear fuel types and nuclear fuel cycles, as well as the design of stable multicomponent elements separation cascades.

Research on fission nuclear reactors for space applications to supply power of equipment (Kilowatt-class) is another of his research interests. The use of nuclear energy, both to supply space propulsion for spacecrafts and to supply power for equipment needed for space exploration, is one of the important requirements for exploration away from the sun and outside the solar system.

Studying the strategy of advanced nuclear countries in diversifying and supplying nuclear fuel based on the reactor-fuel cycle network is another area of Mr. Balgehshiri’s research. Choosing the best strategy for long-term and reliable supply of nuclear fuel is essential for development of nuclear energy as part of an energy portfolio. Other areas of his research include technology readiness assessment (TRA) for advanced nuclear fuels and advanced small modular reactors (ASMRs). In establishing a new technology, it is necessary to assess the technology level by identifying critical technology elements (CTEs) and determining of technology readiness level (TRL) in order to develop a maturity plan.

In the field of waste from electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) management, he has carried out projects on silver extraction and purification by hydrometallurgy and electrolysis, extraction of precious metals (gold, platinum, silver, etc.) from WEEE, and extraction of platinum from worn-out electrolysis cathode plates.

Other areas of his work including economic analysis of technical options for projects with COMFAR III software (COMFAR facilitates short- and long-term analysis of financial and economic consequences for industrial and nonindustrial projects), metal corrosion, cathodic protection (cathodic protection is an integral part of various industries such as the nuclear industry and chemical industry), and feasibility studies for companies in the food industry.

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Dr. Bahman Zohuri is currently working at General Electric Hitachi (GEH) Nuclear Energy as Principal Engineer. After graduating from the University of Illinois in the field of physics and applied mathematics, he joined Westinghouse Electric Corporation, where he performed thermal hydraulic analysis and natural circulation for the inherent shutdown heat removal system (ISHRS) in the core of a liquid metal fast breeder reactor (LMFBR) as a secondary fully inherent shut system for secondary loop heat exchange. These designs were used for nuclear safety and reliability engineering for a self-actuated shutdown system. He designed the Mercury heat pipe and electromagnetic pumps for large-pool concepts of the LMFBR for heat rejection purposes for this reactor around 1978, and received a patent for it. Later on, he was transferred to the defense division of Westinghouse, where he was responsible for the dynamic analysis and method of launch and handling of MX missiles out of canisters. The results were applied to MX launch seal performance and muzzle blast phenomena analysis (i.e., missile vibration and hydrodynamic shock formation).

He was also involved in analytical calculation and computation in the study of nonlinear ion waves in rarefying plasma. The results were applied to the propagation of soliton waves and the resulting charge collector traces, in the rarefactions characteristic of the corona of a laser-irradiated target pellet. As part of his graduate research work at Argonne National Laboratory, he performed computation and programming of multiexchange integrals in surface physics and solid-state physics. He held different patents in areas such as diffusion processes and design of diffusion furnace while he was a senior process engineer working for different semiconductor companies such as Intel, Varian, and national semiconductor corporations.

Later on, Dr. Zohuri joined Lockheed Missiles and Space Company as Senior Chief Scientist and was senior responsible in R&D and the study of vulnerability, survivability, and both radiation and laser hardening of different components of payload (i.e., IR sensors) for the Defense Support Program (DSP), Boost Surveillance and Tracking Satellite (BSTS), and Space Surveillance and Tracking Satellite (SSTS) against laser or nuclear threats. While working there, he also studied and performed the analysis of characteristics of laser beam and nuclear radiation interaction with materials, transient radiation effects in electronics (TREE), electromagnetic pulses (EMPs), system generated electromagnetic pulses (SGEMPs), single-event upset (SEUs), blast and thermo-mechanical hardness assurance, maintenance, and device technology.

He worked as a consultant for a few years under his company Galaxy Advanced Engineering with Sandia National Laboratories (SNL), where he was supporting the development of operational hazard assessments for the Air Force Safety Center (AFSC) in concert with other interested parties. The intended eventual use of the results was as part of air force instructions (AFIs) specifically issued for directed energy weapons (DEW) operational safety. He completed the first version of a comprehensive library of detailed laser tools for airborne lasers (ABLs), advanced tactical laser (ATLs), tactical high energy laser (THELs), mobile/tactical high energy lasers (M-THELs), etc.

Dr. Zohuri was also responsible for Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) computer programs involved with Battle Management C³ and artificial intelligence, and autonomous systems. He is the author of many publications and holds various patents such as for laser activated radioactive decay and results of thru-bulkhead initiation.

He has completed many books and journal publications; these can be found online by searching for his name.

Preface

This book covers the new advanced Generation IV (GEN-IV, also known as Generation IV International Forum or GIF) reactor, specifically we describe the reactor known as Natrium and its technology as a part of small modular reactors (SMRs).

According to the Office of Nuclear Energy (https://www.energy.gov/ne/articles/3-advanced-reactor-systems-watch-2030):

Generation IV nuclear reactors are being developed through an international cooperation of 14 countries—including the United States.

The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) and its national laboratories are supporting research and development on a wide range of new advanced reactor technologies that could be a game-changer for the nuclear industry. These innovative systems are expected to be cleaner, safer and more efficient than previous generations.

The Natrium design was one of two concepts selected by Department of Energy’s Advance Reactor Demonstration Program for extensive funding. It is an advanced, high-temperature nuclear reactor, hooked up to a giant tank filled with molten salt to store energy, according to the Nuclear Energy Institute (NEI).

The Latin word natrium refers to the Egyptian natron, which is a natural mineral salt mainly consisting of hydrated sodium carbonate. The chemical symbol for sodium is Na.

Power companies run by billionaire friends Bill Gates and Warren Buffett have chosen Wyoming to launch the first Natrium nuclear reactor project on the site of a retiring coal plant. As result TerraPower was funded total of $80 m in initial funding to demonstrate Natrium technology for its prototype, and the department has committed additional funding in coming years subject to congressional appropriation.

TerraPower in collaboration with X-Energy and General Electric Hitachi (GEH) have been chosen by the U.S. Department of Energy to pursue such new ideas from conceptual design to prototype and finally to production as part of a free carbon source of energy by converting it to electricity for consumers.

TerraPower, founded by Gates about 15 years ago, and power company PacifiCorp, owned by Warren Buffett’s Berkshire Hathaway, said on Wednesday that the exact site of the Natrium reactor demonstration plant was expected to be announced by the end of 2021.

Small advanced reactors, which run on different fuels to traditional reactors, are regarded by some as a critical carbon-free technology than can supplement intermittent power sources like wind and solar as states strive to cut emissions that cause climate change.

We think Natrium will be a game-changer for the energy industry, Gates told a media conference to launch the project in Cheyenne, Wyoming. This is our fastest and clearest course to becoming carbon negative," according to Wyoming present governor.

The project features a 345-MW sodium-cooled fast reactor with molten salt-based energy storage that could boost the system’s power output to 500 MW during peak power demand. TerraPower said last year that the plants would cost about $1bn.

Nuclear power experts have warned that advanced reactors could have higher risks than conventional ones. Fuel for many advanced reactors would have to be enriched at a much higher rate than conventional fuel, meaning the fuel supply chain could be an attractive target for militants looking to create a crude nuclear weapon.

In this book, as part of an internal system review on electromagnetic pumps, we consider large pool-concept liquid metal fast breeder reactors (LMFBRs) and we study several types and sizes of sodium pumps that have been used at Experimental Breeder Reactor-II (EBR-II) since the initial operation of the primary sodium system in around 1963.

Chapter 1 covers the history of the next generation of nuclear plant (NGNP) demonstration project, which forms the basis for an entirely new generation of advanced nuclear plants capable of meeting the emerging need for greenhouse gas-free process heat and electricity in countries that have nuclear technology. The NGNP is based on the very high temperature gas-cooled reactor (VHTR) technology, which has been determined to be the most promising for the US in the medium term. The determination was documented as part of the Generation IV implementation strategy in a report submitted to Congress in 2003, following an extensive international technical evaluation effort. VHTR technology incorporates substantive safety and operational enhancements over existing nuclear technologies. As required by the Energy Policy Act of 2005 (EPAct), the NGNP will be a prototype nuclear power plant, built at the Idaho National Laboratory (INL). Future commercial versions of the NGNP will meet or exceed the reliability, safety, proliferation-resistance, and economy of existing commercial nuclear plants. It is envisioned that these advanced nuclear plants would be able to supply cost-competitive process heat that can be used to power a variety of energy intensive industries, such as the generation of electricity, hydrogen, enhanced oil recovery, refineries, coal-to-liquids and coal-to-gas plants, chemical plants, and fertilizer plants.

Chapter 2 discusses electromagnetic pumps (EMPs) in some detail. An EMP is a pump that moves liquid metal, in particular, any electrically conductive liquid using electromagnetism phenomena. By the law of physics of electromagnetics, a magnetic field is defined as one that is set at right angles to the direction in which the liquid moves, while a current is passing through it as well. This event induces an electromagnetic force for the movements of the liquid. Applications of EMPs include pumping liquid metal through any cooling system that is installed inside a liquid metal container in particular. Electromagnetic (EM) sodium and NaK pumps have a long history of extensive technology and successful use as auxiliary system pumps and also as heat transport system pumps in some early research, and small prototype liquid metal fast breeder reactor (LMFBR) plants and for that matter in LMFBRs such as versatile test reactors (VTRs) in recent years. The pumps used for these applications have a pump rate of 6500 g/min (gpm).

Chapter 3 considers the nuclear power reactor radiation environment and how we can shield that environment, both internal and external, from the main core of reactor. Radiation hardening, also known as rad hardening, and radiation survivability testing are of critical importance to defense, aerospace, and energy industries. Everyone knows that excessive exposure to radiation can cause severe damage to living things, but high radiation levels can also cause radiation damage to other objects, especially electronics. Ionizing radiation in particular, including directly ionizing radiation such as alpha and beta particles and indirectly ionizing radiation such as gamma rays and neutron radiation, is profoundly damaging to the semiconductors which make up the backbone of all modern electronics. Just one charged particle can interfere with thousands of electrons, causing signal noise, disrupting digital circuits, and even causing permanent physical radiation damage. Radiation hardening involves designing radiation-tolerant electronics and components that are tolerant of the massive levels of ionizing radiation, such as cosmic outer space radiation, X-ray radiation in medical or security environments, and high energy radiation within nuclear power plants. In order to test these components and determine whether they are sufficiently hardened, radiation-hardened electronics manufacturers perform rigorous testing as part of their product manufacturing processes. Components that pass these tests go into production and can be described as radiation-hardened, while components that do not go back to design.

Chapter 4 introduces readers to passive heat transfer instruments such as heat pipe (HP) driving fission nuclear power plants. As the global population grows, so will the demand for energy to ensure standards of living, health and life expectancy, literacy, opportunity, etc. To cope with this energy demand, nuclear energy, which is believed to be sustainable, clean, and safe, has been extensively advocated. To enhance the future role of nuclear energy systems, a generation of innovative nuclear energy systems, known as Generation IV, has been proposed to replace the current Gen II/III reactors and Gen III+ reactors that will be deployed in the near future. A new concept involving the use of heat pipes as control devices for nuclear reactors is investigated in this chapter. A feature of this concept is that the heat pipe contains a fissionable material as the working fluid. The primary purpose of the heat pipe is to change the amount of fuel within a reactor instead of the usual purpose of transferring heat. In conjunction with heat pipes (HPs), the chapter includes a section on the Directed Reactor Auxiliary Cooling System (DRACS) and presents the scalar analysis for it as well in particular in respect to advanced high temperature reactors (AHTRs) and small modular reactors (SMRs) of Generation IV (GEN-IV) such as molten salt reactor is shape of the pebble-bed reactor (PBR). The PBR is a design for a graphite-moderated, gas-cooled nuclear reactor. It is a type of very high temperature reactor (VHTR), one of the six classes of nuclear reactors in the Generation IV initiative.

Chapter 5 provides a holistic approach to the thermal hydraulics of light water reactors, when it comes to the design core of the family of these reactors. One of the most important safety questions in a nuclear power plant is: can you cool the very hot nuclear fuel during an accident when normal cooling is disrupted? The scientific field best equipped to answer this question is called thermal hydraulics. In nuclear engineering and radiation science at S&T, the emphasis is on multiphase flow phenomena for the safety of nuclear power plants (NPPs) and specifically light water reactors (LWRs). Nuclear reactor thermal hydraulics comprises areas of thermodynamics, fluid mechanics, and heat transfer of interest in the safety and operation of nuclear reactor systems. With the advent of passive safety systems and the increasing popularity of small modular reactors and advanced reactor designs, new approaches for heat transfer and reactor safety systems must be developed and tested.

Chapter 6 describes an instrumentation and control (I&C) system—a traversing in-core probe (TIP) system—that can be used to provide a means of obtaining the axial and radial neutron flux distribution within the reactor core. In order to measure neutron flux distribution in a nuclear reactor, local power range monitors (LPRMs) are provided in the reactor. The sensitivity of LPRMs needs to be calibrated arbitrarily in order to measure the neutron flux distribution in the reactor exactly. In order to calibrate the sensitivity of the LPRMs, a TIP system is provided in the nuclear power plant. The TIP system moves a TIP in calibration tubes provided in the reactor, where it measures neutron flux in the proximity of the LPRMs while in motion. By using the results from the measurement of the neutron flux distribution, the sensitivity of the LPRMs is calibrated.

Chapter 7 introduces an instrument that may be used as a substitute for gamma thermometer but cheaper to manufacture; this is the heated junction thermocouple system (HJTS). This system measures reactor coolant liquid inventory with discrete heated junction thermocouple sensors located at different levels within a separator tube ranging from the top of the core to the reactor vessel head. The basic principle of system operation is the detection of a temperature difference between adjacent heated and unheated thermocouples utilizing a one-dimensional and two-phase flow concept. A liquid level sensing apparatus senses the level of liquid surrounding the apparatus. A plurality of axially spaced sensors is enclosed in a separator tube. The separator tube tends to collapse the level of a two-phase fluid within the separator tube into essentially a liquid phase and a gaseous phase where the collapsed level bears a relationship to the coolant inventory outside the separator tube. The level of the liquid phase is sensed by level sensing apparatus.

Chapter 8 discusses certain instrumentation that is not new; however, it has been suggested as way of calibrating nuclear reactor power and its performance while in operation. This is the gamma thermometer (GT). A GT system for local power range monitor (LPRM) calibration and power shape monitoring is described. The GT is part of the automatic fixed in-core probe (AFIP) system. A GT is a simple, solid-state device for measuring the thermal effects of intense gamma ray fields. GTs show great promise in simplifying boiling water reactor (BWR) in-core instrumentation for future plants by providing an economical alternative to the traversing in-core probe (TIP) system. The purpose of this chapter is to supply regulators (and others) with sufficient information to understand the technical features of the GT system and to confirm the suitability of the GT system for LPRM calibration and power distribution monitoring.

Overall, this book takes a holistic approach in providing an introduction to Natrium nuclear power reactors at the current time. Once more details on this technology become clear, we can revisit and update this book, but for now we hope that readers will enjoy this book and find it useful in their studies or employment.

A. Zamani Paydar, (Tehran, Iran, April 24, 2022)

K. Mousavi Balgehshiri, (Tehran, Iran, April 24, 2022)

B. Zohuri, (San Mateo, California, United States, April 24, 2022)

Acknowledgments

Any attempt at any level cannot be satisfactorily completed without the support and guidance of other people. Firstly, I would like to express special thanks to my teacher Dr. Bahman Zohuri, who gave me the excellent opportunity to do this great project on the topic (Advanced Reactor Concepts), which also helped me in doing a lot of research and enabled me to learn about many new things; I am therefore very grateful to him. Secondly, I would like to thank my parents and friends, who helped me a lot in completing my education; it would not have been possible to travel this difficult path without their help. I am overwhelmed with humbleness and gratefulness in wishing to acknowledge my debt to all those who have helped me to translate these complex ideas into something lasting.

Ali Zamani Paydar

I am grateful to the esteemed and wise Dr. Zohuri for his compassionate guidance and for showing me the right way to make progress and gain knowledge. I dedicate this book to my late father, who embodied the spirit of effort and endeavor, and who was a great advisor of me during my education, and also to my mother, who always encouraged me with compassion.

Seyed Kamal Mousavi Balgehshiri

I would like to acknowledge all the new and young generations of students in any field of science who are thirsty to learn new knowledge in their field regardless of their access limitations due to their geopolitical locations. I hope that via the Internet of Things, they will find what they are looking for; I would do anything within my limited power to help them and wish them the best of luck.

Meanwhile, I am indebted to the many people who aided, encouraged, and supported me beyond my expectations. Some are not around to see the results of their encouragement in the production of this book, yet I hope they know of my deepest appreciation. I especially want to thank my true close friends, to whom I am deeply indebted; they have continuously given their support without hesitation. They all have always kept me going in the right direction.

Above all, I offer very special thanks to my late mother and father, and to my children, in particular, my son Sasha and my daughters Natasha and Natalie, as well as my grandsons Dariush and Kian, and my granddaughter Donya. They have provided constant interest and encouragement, without which this book would not have been written. Their patience with my many absences from home and long hours in front of the computer to prepare the manuscript are especially appreciated.

Bahman Zohuri

Chapter 1: Next generation nuclear plant (NGNP)

Abstract

The next-generation nuclear plant (NGNP) demonstration project forms the basis for an entirely new generation of advanced nuclear plants capable of meeting the emerging need for greenhouse gas-free process heat and electricity. The NGNP is based on very high temperature gas-cooled reactor (VHTR) technology. For more than a decade, the Generation IV International Forum (GIF) has led international collaborative efforts to develop next-generation nuclear energy systems that can help meet the world’s future energy needs. The chapter discusses the very high temperature reactors (VHTRs), molten salt reactors (MSRs), sodium-cooled fast reactors (SFRs), supercritical water-cooled reactors (SCWR), gas-cooled fast reactors (GFRs), and lead-cooled fast reactors (LFRs). Small modular reactors (SMRs) are also considered in detail, including Natrium technology. Advanced Reactor Concepts are studied, which use liquid salt technology as a primary coolant for fluoride salt-cooled high temperature reactors (FHRs), and coated particle fuels similar to high temperature gas-cooled reactors.

Keywords

Generation IV systems; Reactors; Energy; Advanced reactor concepts; Power plants

The next-generation nuclear plant (NGNP) demonstration project forms the basis for an entirely new generation of advanced nuclear plants capable of meeting the USA's emerging need for greenhouse gas-free process heat and electricity. The NGNP is based on very high temperature gas-cooled reactor (VHTR) technology, which was determined to be the most promising for the US in the medium term. This was documented as part of the Generation IV implementation strategy in a report submitted to Congress in 2003 [1] following an extensive international technical evaluation effort [2]. VHTR technology incorporates substantive safety and operational enhancements over existing nuclear technologies. As required by the Energy Policy Act of 2005 (EPAct), the NGNP will be a prototype nuclear power plant, built at the Idaho National Laboratory (INL). Future commercial versions of the NGNP will meet or exceed the reliability, safety, proliferation-resistance, and economy of existing commercial nuclear plants. It is envisioned that these advanced nuclear plants will be able to supply cost-competitive process heat that can be used to provide power for a variety of energy-intensive industries, such as the generation of electricity, hydrogen, enhanced oil recovery, refineries, coal-to-liquid and coal-to-gas plants, chemical plants, and fertilizer plants [3].

1.1: Introduction

The US Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) is responsible for licensing and regulating the construction and operation of the NGNP. The EPAct authorizes the US Department of Energy (DOE) to build the NGNP at the Idaho National Laboratory (INL) and charges the INL with responsibility for leading the project development. The project’s completion depends on the collaborative efforts of DOE and its national laboratories, commercial industry participants, US universities, and international government agencies as well as successful licensing by the NRC. At present, and pending further evaluation as the NGNP proceeds through Phase 1 in cost-shared collaboration with industry as required by the EPAct, the DOE has not made a final determination on whether the license applicant will be the DOE or one or more entities that reflect a partnership [3] between the DOE and private sector firms.

1.2: Licensing strategy components history

NGNP reactor technology will differ from that of commercial light water reactors (LWRs) currently used for electric power generation. LWRs have a well-established framework of regulatory requirements, a technical basis for these requirements, and supporting regulatory guidance on acceptable approaches that an applicant can take to show that NRC requirements are met. The NRC uses a Standard Review Plan to review licensing applications for these reactor designs. Additionally, the NRC has a well-established set of validated analytical codes and methods and a well-established infrastructure for conducting safety research needed to support its independent safety review of an LWR plant design and the technical adequacy of a licensing application.

New nuclear power plants can be licensed under either of two existing regulatory approaches. The first approach is the traditional two-step process described in Title 10, Part 50, Domestic Licensing of Production and Utilization Facilities, of the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) (10 CFR Part 50), which requires both a Construction Permit (CP) and a separate operating license (OL). The second approach is the new one-step licensing process described in 10 CFR Part 52, Licenses, Certifications, and Approvals for Nuclear Power Plants, which incorporates a combined Construction and Operating License (COL). Both of these processes allow a deterministic or risk-informed performance-based approach to technical requirements [3].

Many of the regulatory requirements and supporting review guidance for light water reactors (LWRs) are technology-neutral; that is, they are applicable to non-LWR designs as well as LWR designs. However, certain LWR requirements may not apply to the unique aspects of a VHTR design. Accordingly, in developing the NGNP licensing strategy, the NRC and DOE considered the various options available to the NRC staff for adapting current NRC LWR licensing requirements for the Next-Generation Nuclear Plant (NGNP).

Under the provisions of Section 644 of the EPAct, the Secretary of Energy and the Chairman of the Nuclear Regulatory Commission are to submit jointly to Congress a licensing strategy for the NGNP within 3 years of the enactment of the Act on August 8, 2005. This report addresses the requirement by outlining a NGNP licensing strategy jointly developed by the NRC and DOE. The scope of the document includes all four elements of the NGNP licensing strategy described in Section 644 (b) of the EPAct:

1.0a description of the ways in which current NRC light water reactor (LWR) licensing requirements need to be adapted for the types of reactors considered for the project;

2.0a description of the analytical tools that the NRC will need to develop in order to verify independently the NGNP design and its safety performance;

3.0a description of other research or development activities that the NRC will need to conduct for the review of an NGNP license application; and

4.0a budget estimate associated with the licensing strategy.

The DOE has determined that the NGNP nuclear reactor will be a very high temperature gas-cooled reactor (VHTR) for the production of electricity, process heat, and hydrogen. The VHTR can provide high temperature process heat (up to 950°C) that can be used as a substitute for the burning of fossil fuels for a wide range of commercial applications. Since the VHTR is a new and unproven reactor design, the NRC will need to adapt its licensing requirements and process, which have historically evolved around LWR designs, for licensing the NGNP nuclear reactor. Thus, Section 644 of the EPAct recognized the need for an alternative licensing strategy. This report provides the recommended NGNP licensing strategy, jointly developed by the NRC and DOE. Revisions to the strategy may be necessary and appropriate as the technology matures, the government/industry partnership evolves, and input is provided by the general public [4].

1.3: Generation IV systems

The world’s population is expected to expand from 7.9 billion people in 2022 to more than 9 billion people by 2050, all striving for a better quality of life. As the earth’s population grows, so does the demand for energy and the benefits that it brings: improved standards of living, better health and longer life expectancy, improved literacy and opportunity, and many others. Simply expanding the use of energy along the same mix of today’s production options, however, does not satisfactorily address concerns over climate change and depletion of fossil resources. For the earth to support its population while ensuring the sustainability of humanity’s development, we must increase the use of energy supplies that are clean, safe, and cost-effective, and which could serve for both basic electricity production and other primary energy needs. Prominent among these supplies is nuclear energy.

At the time of writing, there are about 440 nuclear power reactors operating in 32 countries plus Taiwan, with a combined capacity of about 390 GWe. In 2020, these provided 2553 TWh, about 10% of the world’s electricity. About 55 power reactors are currently being constructed in 19 countries, notably China, India, Russia, and the United Arab Emirates (World Nuclear Association).

In the 2021 World Energy Outlook report (WEO 2021 edition), the IEA’s Stated Policies Scenario estimated installed nuclear capacity growth to be over 26% from 2020 to 2050 (reaching about 525 GWe). The scenario envisages a total generating capacity of 17,844 GWe by 2050, with the increase concentrated heavily in Asia, and in particular India and China (WEO 2021 edition).

For more than a decade, the Generation IV International Forum (GIF) has led international collaborative efforts to develop next-generation nuclear energy systems that can help meet the world’s future energy needs. Generation IV designs will use fuel more efficiently, reduce waste production, be economically competitive, and meet stringent standards of safety and proliferation resistance.

The GIF was initiated in May 2000 and formally chartered in mid-2001. It is an international collective representing the governments of 14 countries where nuclear energy is significant now and also seen as vital for the future. Governments are committed to joint development of the next generation of nuclear technology. The GIF is led by the USA, and Argentina, Brazil, Canada, China, France, Japan, Russia, South Korea, South Africa, Australia, Switzerland, and the UK are charter members, along with the EU (Euratom). Most of these countries are party to the Framework Agreement (FA), which formally commits them to participate in the development of one or more Generation IV systems selected by GIF for further R&D. Argentina and Brazil did not sign the FA, and the UK withdrew from it; accordingly, within the GIF, these three are designated as inactive Members. Russia formalized its accession to the FA in August 2009 as its 10th member, with Rosatom as the implementing agent. In 2011, the 13 members decided to modify and extend the GIF charter indefinitely.

For more than a decade, the GIF has led international collaborative efforts to develop next-generation nuclear energy systems that can help meet the world’s future energy needs. Generation IV designs will use fuel more efficiently, reduce waste production, be economically competitive, and meet stringent standards of safety and proliferation resistance.

With these goals in mind, some 100 experts evaluated 130 reactor concepts before the GIF selected 6 reactor technologies for further research and development.

These include the:

1.very high temperature reactor (VHTR);

2.molten salt reactor (MSR);

3.sodium-cooled fast reactor (SFR);

4.supercritical water-cooled reactor (SCWR);

5.gas-cooled fast reactor (GFR); and

6.lead-cooled fast reactor (LFR).

Fig. 1.1 illustrates the six types of reactors that are considered as part of a Generation IV power plant. Details about each of these reactors are provided in later sections.

Fig. 1.1

Fig. 1.1 Six reactor technologies of generation IV. Courtesy of the Generation IV International Forum (GIF).

1.3.1: Very high temperature reactor (VHTR)

Among the six new generation reactor technologies in the technical roadmap of Generation IV International Forum (GIF), the very high temperature reactor (VHTR) is primarily dedicated to the cogeneration of electricity and hydrogen, the latter being extracted from water by using thermo-chemical, electro-chemical, or hybrid processes (Fig. 1.2). Its high outlet temperature also makes it attractive for the chemical, oil, and iron industries. Original target of outlet temperature of 1000°C from the VHTR can support the efficient production of hydrogen by thermo-chemical processes. The technical basis for the VHTR is the TRISO coated particle fuel, the graphite as the core structure, helium coolant, as well as the dedicated core layout and lower power density to removal decay heat in a natural way. The VHTR has potential for inherent safety, high thermal efficiency, process heat application capability, low operation and maintenance costs, and modular construction.

Fig. 1.2

Fig. 1.2 Very high temperature reactor. Courtesy of the Generation IV International Forum (GIF).

The VHTR is a next step in the evolutionary development of high temperature gas-cooled reactors. It is a graphite-moderated, helium-cooled reactor with thermal neutron spectrum. It can supply nuclear heat and electricity over a range of core outlet temperatures between 700 and 950°C, or more than 1000°C in future. The reactor core type of the VHTR can be a prismatic block core such as the Japanese HTTR, or a pebble-bed core such as the Chinese HTR-10. For electricity generation, a helium gas turbine system can be directly set in the primary coolant loop, which is called a direct cycle or at the lower end of the outlet temperature range, a steam