Spanish Warships in the Age of Sail, 1700–1860: Design, Construction, Careers and Fates

By Rif Winfield, John Tredrea, Enrique García-Torralba Pérez and Manuel Blasco Felip

This book is the latest contribution to a unique series in a common format documenting in great detail the warships of the major naval powers during the age of sail. To date, four volumes have covered the British Navy, two have been devoted to the French Navy and one each to the Dutch and Russian Navies. This volume on the Spanish Navy, for much of its history the third largest in the world, fills the final gap in the ranks of the major maritime powers.

This book is the first comprehensive listing of these ships in English and covers the development of all the naval vessels owned or deployed by Spain during the period of the Bourbon monarchy from 1700 to 1860 (including the period of French control during the Napoleonic Wars), but it also sets the scene for that period by summarizing the origins of Spanish naval development under the preceding Habsburg regime.

As with previous volumes in the series, the main chapters list all the naval vessels from 1700 onwards (including those 16th century ships which survived into the new regime in 1700) by type, with the first chapters listing the ships of the line (navíos in Spanish terminology) and frigates in descending order of firepower, and subsequent chapters covering minor and ancillary vessels. Where available, a brief service history of each individual ship is given.

A comprehensive introductory section includes a group of background essays designed to provide the reader with a deep understanding of how Spanish naval forces operated, and the context within which they were organized.

Certain to become the standard English-language reference work, its publication is of the utmost importance to every naval historian and general reader interested in the navies of the sailing era.

• Language: English
• Publisher: Pen and Sword
• Release date: May 30, 2023
• ISBN: 9781526790798

Rif Winfield

Rif Winfield has worked in the shipping and computer industries, has been for many years a charity director, has operated his own retail businesses (with his wife Ann), and has been a candidate for elections to Parliament and other levels of government, including serving as an elected Councillor and being appointed to government posts in health and in local government. A life-long researcher into naval history, he lives in Mid Wales and is the author of a number of standard works on the ships of the British Navy.

Book preview

Spanish Warships

in the Age of Sail

1700–1860

Spanish Warships

in the Age of Sail

1700–1860

Design, Construction, Careers and Fates

R

IF

W

INFIELD

J

OHN

T

REDREA

E

NRIQUE

G

ARCÍA

-T

ORRALBA

P

ÉREZ

M

ANUEL

B

LASCO

F

ELIP

F

RONTISPIECE

: This painting by Ángel Cortellini Sánchez (1858–1912) represents the combat between the Royal Sovereign and the Santa Ana at Trafalgar. In this battle the British ship passed under the stern of her Spanish opponent, firing a broadside of 50 triple-shotted guns which dismounted 14 pieces of artillery and inflicted some 100 casualties: both ships continued to fight on for two hours until the Santa Ana, also engaged by the Belleisle, lost all her masts and, with 97 dead and 141 wounded on board, had to lower her flag. The Royal Sovereign, Collingwood’s flagship, suffered 42 dead and 85 wounded, and she too was so badly mauled that she was unable to manoeuvre. She had to be towed out of the action and Collingwood transferred his flag to the frigate Euryalus to continue the fight. The Santa Ana was recaptured the day after the battle by other Spanish ships. She survived until 1816 when she was decommissioned, sinking at Havana in 1817 for lack of careening.

Copyright © Rif Winfield, John Tredrea, Enrique García-Torralba Pérez & Manuel Blasco Felip 2023

First published in Great Britain in 2023 by

Seaforth Publishing

An imprint of Pen & Sword Books Ltd

George House, Unit 12 & 13, Beevor Street,

Off Pontefract Road, Barnsley, South Yorkshire S71 1HN

www.seaforthpublishing.com

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ISBN 978-1-5267-9078-1 (Hardback)

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Contents

Preface

Acknowledgments

Structure and Organisation of the Book

Some Guidance Notes for the Reader

A Note on Spanish Units of Weights and Measurements

A Note on How Measurements Relate to Vessels

A Note on Names

A Note on Dates

A Note on Spanish Naval Ranks

A Note on Spanish Monetary Units

A Note of Spanish Flags and Royal Arms

A Note on Conversions

Chronology of the Trastamara and Habsburg Eras

Chronology of the Bourbon Era

Historical Overview

Spain before the Hapsburgs

The Sixteenth Century

The Seventeenth Century

The Eighteenth Century (to 1808)

The Nineteenth Century (from 1808 to 1860)

Civilian and Naval Leaders of the Bourbon Spanish Navy

The ‘Regional’ Navies of Felipe II and his Successors

Subsidiary Services and Squadrons

Coastguard (guardacostas) Vessels

Maritime Mail Services (Correos Marítimos)

Squadrons of Evolution

Marinas Consulares

Trans-Pacific Trade — the Manila Galleons

Fleet Lists (for Battles and Actions in which Spanish Naval vessels took part)

Naval Construction Programmes

Departmental Organisation under the Bourbons

Spanish Naval Arsenals, Dockyards and Shipbuilding

Spanish Naval Ordnance Development from 1600 to 1860

Spanish Naval Architecture

The Era of the Habsburgs

The Bourbon Era

Copper Sheathing

Material Resource Management under the Bourbons

Naval Personnel — Acquisition, Training, Maintenance and Retention under the Bourbons

Available Manpower Resources

The Naval Command Structure

Sources and Archives

Bibliography

Glossary and Abbreviations

Chapter 1: The Three-decker Ships of the Line

(A) Vessels in service or on order at 1 November 1700

(B) Vessels acquired from 1 November 1700

(C) Vessels acquired from 1750

(D) Vessels acquired from 1769

(E) Vessels acquired from 1782

(F) Vessels acquired from 1808

Chapter 2: Large Two-decker Ships of 80 guns and above

(A) Vessels in service or on order at 1 November 1700

(B) Vessels acquired from 1 November 1700

(C) Vessels acquired from 1750

(D) Vessels acquired from 1770

(E) Vessels acquired from 1782

(F) Vessels acquired after 1808

Chapter 3: Two-decker Ships of ‘70’ (68 to 74) guns

(A) Vessels in service or on order at 1 November 1700

(B) Vessels acquired from 1 November 1700

(C) Vessels acquired from 1750

(D) Vessels acquired from 1770

(E) Vessels acquired from 1782

(F) Vessels acquired from 1808

Chapter 4: Two-decker Ships of ‘60’ (58 to 66) guns

(A) Vessels in service or on order at 1 November 1700

(B) Vessels acquired from 1 November 1700

(C) Vessels acquired from 1750

(D) Vessels acquired from 1769

(E) Vessels acquired from 1782

(F) Vessels acquired from 1808

Chapter 5: Ships and Frigates of 40 to 56 guns

(A) Vessels in service or on order at 1 November 1700

(B) Vessels acquired from 1 November 1700

(C) Vessels acquired from 1750

(D) Vessels acquired from 1770

(E) Vessels acquired from 1782

(F) Vessels acquired from 1808

Chapter 6: Frigates of 20 to 36 guns

(A) Vessels in service or on order at 1 November 1700

(B) Vessels acquired from 1 November 1700

(C) Vessels acquired from 1750

(D) Vessels acquired from 1770

(E) Vessels acquired from 1782

(F) Vessels acquired from 1808

Chapter 7: Small Frigates (Fragatillas) with fewer than 20 guns and Corvettes (Corbetas)

Chapter 8: Brigs (Bergantines) and Brig-schooners (Bergantines-goletas)

(A) Brigs

(B) Brig-schooners ( Bergantines-goletas )

Chapter 9: Bomb vessels (Bombardas)

Chapter 10: Storeships (Urcas)

Chapter 11: Fireships (Brulotes)

Chapter 12: Packets (Paquebotes)

Chapter 13: Other Square-rigged Vessels — Polacres (polacras) and Zumacas

(A) Polacres

(B) Zumacas

Mediterranean vessels (with lateen sails)

Chapter 14: Galleys (Galeras) and Half-galleys (Galeotas)

(A) Galleys extant in 1700

(B Galleys acquired from 1 November 1700 to 1750

(C) Galleys of the Philippines

(D) Half-galleys ( Galeotas )

Chapter 15: Xebecs (Jabeques, including Chambequines)

(A) Xebecs chartered in 1742—1743

(B) Xebecs acquired after 1750

Chapter 16: Pinks (Pingues) and Saetías

(A) Pinks

(B) Saetías

Chapter 17: Barks (Barcas) and Mystics (Místicos)

(A) Barks

(B) Mystics

Chapter 18: Feluccas (Faluchos)

Chapter 19: Other Minor Vessels with Mediterranean Rigs — Escampavías and Tartanas

(A) Escampavías

(B) Tartanas

Fore-and-aft rigged vessels

Chapter 20: Schooners (Goletas)

Chapter 21: Pilot Boats (Pailebotes) and Balajús

(A) Pilot Boats

(B) Balajús

Chapter 22: Cutters (Balandras)

Chapter 23: Flecheras

Chapter 24: Other Minor Vessels with Fore-and-aft Rigs — Luggers (Lugres), Quechemarines, Trincaduras and Falúas

(A) Luggers

(B) Quechemarines

(C) Trincaduras

(D) Falúas

Addendum: Steam-assisted Warships to 1860

(A) Paddle Vessels

(B) Screw Vessels

Appendix A: List of vessels participating in the 1588 Felicísima Armada

Appendix B: List of vessels participating in the 1639 Battle of the Downs

Appendix C: The 17th-century Ordinances governing shipbuilding

Appendix D: Numbers of ships in existence from 1782

Appendix E: Spanish naval expenditures

Appendix F: Ordnance regulations

Appendix G: Official complements of Spanish warships

Preface

This volume, one in a series on the warships of European navies during the sailing era, describes the evolution, character and activities of Spanish naval vessels from November 1700 (coincident with the start of the Bourbon monarchy in that country) until the close of the age of sail. The authors did not attempt to cover individual warships of the preceding era under the Habsburg Monarchy that reigned in Spain from the early 16th century until 1700, as reliable data is not available, although such ships as still existed in 1700 (essentially, all ships built after 1690) are included. We have however described the evolution of Spanish naval forces and naval construction during the Habsburg era, as this set the scene for 18th century developments, and described the evolution of Spanish naval architecture from the 16th century onwards. We have also included ships with steam-assisted propulsion (both by paddle and screw) during the closing years of our period.

During the later 16th, 17th and early 18th century, there were a number of distinct Spanish naval services, here termed ‘regional’ navies. From 1712 onwards, as the new Bourbon monarchy consolidated itself in power following the War of the Spanish Succession, there was a reconstruction which saw the gradual elimination of these regional forces and the establishment in 1716 of a unified Royal Navy (Real Armada) which lasted until after the close of the period covered by this book. It is worthwhile pointing out that the usage of the word ‘Armada’ in Spanish can signify both ‘Navy’ and ‘Fleet’, and our use of the term in this volume is only in the former connection. Our coverage largely does not extend to nor reference the various expeditions sent against England in the late 16th century, of which the first, in 1588, is habitually called ‘the Spanish Armada’ by English-speaking writers but termed ‘Felicísima Armada’ in Spanish writings. However, to help set the scene, we do explain the naval forces available to the Habsburg king at that time and by his successors.

In looking at the Habsburg naval forces, we faced a problem as to the national identity of the forces we are describing. Since Roman and subsequently Visigothic and then Moorish days, the Iberian Peninsula has been divided politically among several entities. With the Reconquest, a number of Christian states were established and expanded. Some of these merged, and by the late 15th century there were three substantial monarchies – those of Aragon, Castile and Portugal. Two other smaller states – the Kingdom of Navarre and the Ta’ifa of Granada – were absorbed in the last years of that century. The monarchs of the House of Trastamara – Queen Isabel of Castile and King Fernando of Aragon – married in 1474 and instituted a joint monarchy, which by 1506 had become a Habsburg dynasty under Felipe I and then in 1516 his son Carlos I. Nevertheless, the two Crowns of Castile and Aragon remained separate entities in constitutional affairs, with their own government and legal systems.

This legal distinction should not mask the fact that in social and political terms, Spain functioned as a single state, even though the constitutional distinction between the two Crowns lasted until 1716, when the Bourbon monarch Felipe V imposed a new union with the issue of the Nueva Planta Decrees following the close of the War of the Spanish Succession. Miguel de Cervantes portrayed Spain as a single nation, albeit with regional disparities, and we have used the term ‘Spain’ for the entire period of the 16th and 17th centuries. Nevertheless, there remained a subtle distinction between the ethos, composition and roles of naval forces of Castile and those of Aragon during these years. Castile’s maritime concerns were those of the Atlantic and the lands beyond – the expansion of non-Iberian territories under the conquistadors and the settlers (from all parts of Spain), while Aragon’s priorities were the maintenance of the inherited Empire in the Mediterranean, where it had not only to preserve Habsburg lands in Italy and the Mediterranean islands, but also to counter the resurgent forces of the Ottoman Empire and from the lesser Islamic states and privateers based on North African strongholds.

Aragon’s naval forces were thus centred on the galley squadrons which were more appropriate to Mediterranean waters, with squadrons of galleys based on Valencia, Catalonia, the Balearic Islands, Naples, Sardinia and Sicily. These were maintained through the Habsburg era, and only dwindled and disappeared in the 1740s. As a consequence, the ports of Catalonia, Valencia and the island territories saw few notable purely sailing warships – certainly not the galleons which formed the core of Spanish naval strength in the Atlantic zones. It is noticeable, in looking at the Spanish ‘Felicísima’ Armada of 1588, with its core squadrons of Castilian and Portuguese galleons (Portugal was controlled by Spain between 1580 and 1640), supplemented by Tuscan galleasses and by armed merchantmen (naos or carracks, plus lesser vessels) from a variety of Spanish-controlled territories including even some from Italian lands, Ragusa and even Germany, that there was no Aragonese component squadron, or even any ships from Catalonia or Valencia. This was not to imply that Aragonese sailors and soldiers were less bellicose, or were less devoted to Felipe II than those of other Habsburg lands; simply that their role and priorities were centred on Mediterranean issues.

Although there was a continuity in Spanish government from 1700 until the Napoleonic invasion of 1808, the overall period falls into distinct periods from the viewpoint of naval design. Apart from the last decades of Habsburg rule, the first half of the 18th century was a period during which the structures of Spanish naval power were re-created. The early period was dominated by Antonio de Gaztañeta until his death in 1728, and his policies were continued for the next 20 years by his successors, who imported French technology and methodology into warship construction.

The lessons of the War of the Austrian Succession, which ended in 1748, marked a new phase in Spanish naval design. The period until 1769 (termed the ‘English phase’) was dominated by British design concepts, encouraged by the importation of British shipwrights to oversee naval construction. After 1769 there was a reversion back towards French design, under the influence of Jean-François Gautier and his successors; this period saw the growing political influence of France, who sought to bring the Bourbon monarchy of Spain into an alliance with their cousins in France.

From 1782, with the end of the war which saw the establishment of American Independence, there was a new consolidation of Spanish design under the direction of José Romero Férnandez de Landa and his successor, Julián Martín de Retamosa. This period came to an abrupt end with the invasion by French troops, which resulted in a messy deterioration in the Spanish navy following its major losses, in concert with its French allies, at the Battle of Trafalgar. By its close, Spain barely retained any naval strength, and new construction in the post-Napoleonic age was limited until the close of the sailing era.

The struggle between Spain and those rebels in her American possessions seeking independence marked the closing years of the Napoleonic era and the subsequent decades. The efforts to re-establish Spanish shipbuilding and ordnance production capabilities in this post-Napoleonic period included the import of smaller French warship types to counter the various insurgent naval forces.

The present volume gives a summary of the main technical details of each class of vessel, as well as one-off designs, for every vessel built for or otherwise acquired by the Real Marina (and its predecessors), including its dimensions and tonnage, its manning and its armaments, as far as the Spanish records go (there are gaps). The designers and builders of each vessel, and its place of construction, are listed where known, along with its construction dates. Some key highlights of individual ship careers have also been mentioned, and details of the order of battle for the major actions in which Spanish fleets and squadrons operated are listed later in this introductory part of the book.

There remain a number of gaps in the information provided, which in the intervening period has become partly fragmented. In particular, many of the official records were destroyed by a massive fire in the Madrid Archives, which took place on Christmas Eve of 1734 (see ‘Sources’). Other records were dispersed when the various components of the historic Spanish territories were separated as sovereign states, and other archives have fallen into private hands. We had no means of recovering such material, although we have been able to supplement the official archives from alternative sources, notably through the research which has been conducted over many decades by Enrique García-Torralba Pérez and others.

This is particularly true of the lesser vessels (buques menores) of the Navy. Indeed, for most of these there is little documentary evidence, sometimes limited to a single mention of a vessel's name in correspondence. Clearly these vessels could not be treated by us in the same manner as the navíos (ships of the line) and frigates, although we have endeavoured to mention every such vessel we can find and verify as having existed. Our coverage of service histories is thus substantially limited to the navíos and frigates covered by our first six chapters, on which we have concentrated, while coverage of lesser vessels (in Chapters 7 to 24) gives what details we have of the vessels and salient details of their history.

In summary, the Spanish warships of the 18th century were both well-designed and well-built, at least as good as their British and French rivals, and at times superior. Spain’s comparatively poor naval performance was partly the result of inadequate maintenance, with inconsistent funding of the infrastructure needed to make best use of her fleet. Spanish mariners were brave and skilful, as befits a seagoing tradition that extended Spanish exploration and trade right around the globe; but relatively less consideration was given to the constant training and exercising that a world-class navy needed to ensure its forces were as efficient as those of her rivals. It should be noted that throughout the 18th century (as indeed throughout the 17th century) Spain suffered from a chronic shortage of manpower to crew its ships, so that many of them had to be reduced to Ordinary (out of service) simply through lack of personnel. And she had some brilliant and courageous officers, including at flag level; but her political command structure ashore proved too dominated by soldiers raised on the notion of the army’s primacy.

Acknowledgments

The authors of this book need to give copious thanks to a number of friends over a span of several years and in the face of serious problems created by Covid-19 limitations, colleagues who have assisted us by providing fresh material, analysing specialist data, and by reviewing and advising on what we have written. Without their assistance in highly specialised areas, we would have found very great difficulty in ensuring complete and accurate coverage of a subject as complex and problem-filled as our attempt to collate and combine available and sometimes conflicting data on a naval organisation that spanned both New and Old World bases over a period running from 1600 through the end of sail in 1860.

Particular credit must also go to Santiago Gómez Cañas, compiler and editor of invaluable Spanish naval websites, contributions and author of the recently-published two-volume Spanish language compendium of operational historical information on Spanish line-of-battle ships, Historiales de los navíos de línea españoles (1700-1850). The range of highly sophisticated information relating not only to Spanish but also to other European sail shared with us included the frequent and generously given advice of the recognised experts Larrie Ferreiro, Guido Ercole, the late Frank Fox, Albert Parker and Ted Sozaev. Without their patient assistance and depth of data, we fear that we might have gone astray on a wide variety of technical issues as well as shortfalls in our depth of coverage of issues of naval architecture, international interrelationships, campaigns and biographical material on both prominent and more obscure Spanish naval officers and members of the Spanish governmental infrastructure.

Mention must be made to the excellent work done in this field by Spanish and English language scholars including (in no particular order of prominence) Carla Rahn Phillips, David Goodman, Christopher Storrs, Pablo Ortega-del-Cerro, Catherine Scheybeler, Cruz Apestegui, José Luis Casaban, Sir John H Elliott and the inimitable John D Harbon. All of these writers and historians have made contributions to our understanding of historical context, technological developments, resource utilisation, personnel matters of the greatest value for any student of this complex subject and era. We are deeply in their debt. Apologies in advance for any significant writers overlooked in this vast and fertile field, but hopefully we have completed our roll of honour in the pages of our Bibliography. We are also obliged to Carlos Parrilla for supplying a number of images, and to Peter Wilkinson for most of the maps.

Grateful thanks must also be awarded to our great friend and editorial consultant, Deb Carlen for her advice on both editorial fine points and the frequently daunting mysteries of computer science; sadly Deb died in early 2022 after a long battle against debilitating conditions which never deterred her resolution and cheerfulness; she will be greatly mourned. We should also thank Rob Gardiner, Julian Mannering, and the Seaforth staff at Barnsley for all their hard work over a two-year pandemic. Finally, we should obviously thank our respective wives (Ann, Audrey, Conchita and Sara) for their encouragements and for coping with their respective husbands' distractions from home matters. A sad note should be added here to mark the premature loss of Rif Winfield’s wife Ann at a crucial point in our process of research and compilation. She will be missed by all of us.

Structure and Organisation of the Book

In principle, this volume has been organised along similar lines to the previously published books in the series, but a number of differences have been forced on us by the particular nature of Spanish naval development and the organisation of its archives.

The first part of this book consists of a series of essays on particular aspects of Spanish maritime and naval arrangements. While the period for which data on individual naval vessels have been described begins in November 1700 (the year in which the Habsburg monarchy in Spain came to an end and was replaced by a Bourbon dynasty), we have in many respects looked back of the preceding centuries to set the creation of Spanish naval power – and its subsequent fluctuations – into their proper context.

While the main chapters of this book deal with the individual vessels built for or operated by the Spanish Bourbon naval forces following the ‘regime change’ which occurred at the start of November 1700 (following the death of the last Spanish Habsburg monarch, Carlos II), the early sections which precede our Chapter 1 include a series of studies on the resources, organisation and development of the Navy during the period of this book, and in some matters stretching back to encompass most of the Habsburg period to demonstrate how Spanish naval services evolved since the classic era in which the Spanish overseas empire was established.

Those readers familiar with other books in this series on Warships in the Age of Sail, particularly those volumes dealing with the British and French Navies, will be aware that much of the earlier chapters of those volumes were organised to reflect the grading system employed by those navies, ie the division into six Rates for the British Navy, and into five Rangs for the French Navy, each division reflecting the number of truck-mounted cannon of varying calibres mounted by the ships.

The Spanish Navy did not have a formal grading system along the lines of the British Rates or French Rangs. Nevertheless, its ships were informally grouped according to the size and number of cannon specified by periodic Artillery Ordinances. These groupings broadly paralleled the British and French systems, and the first six chapters of the present volume conform to these groupings, covering approximately 460 navíos and frigates.

The following part of this book is a series of chapters on individual types of naval vessels. These fall into two clear groups. In the first six chapters, we deal with the various ships of the line (navíos in Spanish), frigates (fragatas) and some corvettes (corbetas) which formed the front line of Spanish naval power. This includes information on the history and employment of these vessels during their careers.

The ships in each chapter have for convenience been organised chronologically into a number of periods during which different policies of development took place:

(A) Vessels remaining in service at 1 November 1700 (survivors from the Habsburg era)

(B) Vessels acquired, built or ordered from 1 November 1700 to 1750

(C) Vessels acquired, built or ordered from 1750 to 1769

(D) Vessels acquired, built or ordered from 1769 to 1782

(E) Vessels acquired, built or ordered from 1782 to 1808

(F) Vessels acquired, built or ordered from 1808 to 1860

Chapter 1 of this book describes the three-deckers which served as the capital ships in the Spanish naval forces from 1700 onwards. With few exceptions, these huge ships mounted over 110 guns each, but were rare enough to warrant individual consideration. The next three chapters, and parts of Chapter 5, detail the two-decked ships of the line (we shall use the Spanish term navíos throughout this book). Chapter 2 covers the largest two-deckers of 80 guns and above, Chapter 3 covers ships of between 68 and 76 guns, and Chapter 4 covers ships of between 58 and 66 guns.

Chapter 5 contains a mixture of navíos and large frigates; two-decked vessels of approximately 50 guns were classified under either label, the choice largely determined by the calibre of guns in the principal (lower deck) battery, but all contained two complete battery decks for most of the 18th century; in the last two decades of the century, Spain – like its rivals – began to build large single-decked frigates carrying 40 guns or more, equivalent to the 18pdr-armed frigates of France or Britain (although in fewer numbers), and these are included in this chapter as they inherited the cruising role of the earlier 50-gun two-deckers. We have included in this chapter two 44-gun vessels in the 1830s which were formally classed as corbetas (corvettes) but which from their heavy armament are best included with the frigates.

Chapter 6 contains the single-decked frigates with a main armament of 6pdr, 8pdr or 12pdr guns. We have chosen to limit this chapter to such frigates with at least 20 guns including at least 18 (9 per side) in their main battery, so it is roughly equivalent to the lowest tier in the formal Rate/Rang grading in the rival naval forces. From the 1750s this group almost entirely was composed of 34-gun frigates with a main battery of 12pdr guns on the upper deck, a type which remained the main form of Spanish frigate for the rest of the century. We have included in this chapter two 28-gun vessels in the 1840s which were formally classed as ‘corbetas’ (corvettes) but which from their heavy armament are best included with the frigates.

The remaining chapters of this volume, from Chapter 7 onwards, contain details of what in British or French terms would be called ‘unrated vessels’, and in Spanish are termed ‘buques menores’. These chapters covering smaller or lesser naval vessels and auxiliaries have needed to be organised differently. This is partly because of the great number of different types of vessel, with a number of categories that do not appear in the service of other naval powers. Additionally, much of the information on these minor vessels is less well recorded in the Spanish archives, and sometimes they do not directly appear at all. We have limited these chapters to vessels whose existence we can be sure of, but in some cases nothing is known except the name and type of a particular vessel, and a year in which it was in use. Some types of vessel only existed for a restricted period of time, and certainly we have no record of vessels carried over from the Habsburg era.

Consequently, in most of these chapters we have not divided them into the six chronological periods mentioned above, but have simply listed them sequentially. Also, we have not attempted to give service histories for any of these craft, as frankly much of the data is dubious, unreliable, or non-existent. Also, rather than providing separate chapters for each of over twenty different types, we have combined some of them into a smaller number of chapters based on the lines and sailing rig of the vessels described.

One group of vessels required special treatment, and these we have added as an Addendum rather than as a numbered chapter. This group comprises the early steam-assisted vessels of the Spanish Navy – both those driven by paddle wheels and those employing screw propellers; these are listed in order to complete our coverage of Spanish naval vessels up to 1860. Nevertheless – given the focus of our work on sailing vessels – our coverage of steam-assisted vessels is quite rudimentary, and readers seeking more details are referred to José Lledó Calabuig’s book mentioned in our Bibliography.

We finish our volume with a series of Appendices to augment the basic information. These mainly look at the Habsburg period, for which we have insufficient data to attempt to describe comprehensively the individual vessels (and certainly minor vessels) of the 16th and 17th centuries. Finally, we conclude with an alphabetical index to all vessels named in the Chapters (ie not including earlier vessels which were lost or discarded prior to 1700), and the page on which they are primarily mentioned; this Index includes the Advocaciones (usually rendered as ‘aliases’ in English) which were applied as alternative religious nomenclature for those vessels whose primary name was secular.

Some Guidance Notes for the Reader

A NOTE ON SPANISH UNITS OF WEIGHTS AND MEASUREMENTS

The authors had to think hard about the units of measurements in which we would report vessels’ dimensions. In pre-metrication Spain, there were a variety of units used, some only employed locally and other used for specific purposes. Early units were given names based on the nearest anatomical equivalents. For the period of this book, there were two distinct systems: the system which had been formally introduced back in 1590, and its replacement which came into force in 1750. We need to describe these two systems below and explain their equivalence in measures which the modern reader will understand, by comparing it with the metric units of measurement.

The system which prevailed from 1590 to 1750 used as its units of measurement the codo (literally ‘elbow’) and the dedo (literally ‘finger’). The difficulty is that there were varying interpretations of the codo. For many purposes, the standard codo equated to approximately 418mm (about 16.55 UK/US inches). However, for the purpose of shipbuilding there was a specialised codo real de Castilla, which was a third longer than the standard codo and thus contained 32 dedos, thus roughly equivalent to 557.27mm (or slightly under 21.94 inches). However, also used in shipbuilding was the codo de ribera (or ribera cbica) of 33 dedos (574.68468mm) which was first applied on the coast of the Cantabric Sea (‘Bay of Biscay’ to British mariners) and which from 1590 was generalised to all of Spain. Throughout this book, it is this longer codo de ribera which we mean when we use the term codo.

As this system was applied in all Spanish records up to 1750, the authors were faced with either quoting two complete sets of data, or converting the figures given in codos into later units. To allow the reader to make comparisons between vessels, we adopted the second option.

Under the Royal Ordinance issued on 25 July 1750, the use of these former units was replaced by a new system for which the basic unit was the Burgos foot (or pie) as the most constant unit of length. The pie was exactly half the former codo real de Castilla and thus equalled 278.635mm or 10.97 inches, or about 91.4% of the British foot (ie 9.85% shorter). The pie, as in the equivalent British of French systems, was divided into twelve Spanish ‘inches’ (or pulgadas, whose name literally meant ‘thumb’). The pulgada had an equivalent (as defined in 1801) of 23.219583mm, compared with the British/US inch of 25.4mm (exact). Thus the pulgada was about 91.4% of the British inch (more precisely, 91.4157%).

It might be helpful to consider both larger and small dimensions. For some purposes, a third basic unit of measurement was the Burgos yard (or vara) of 3 pies. The vara equalled 835.93mm or 32.91 inches.

For longer distances, Spain used the milla (‘mile’) and the legua (‘league’). The Spanish milla, derived from the Roman ‘mille passus’ – or 8 stadia, was equal to 1,393 metres or 0.866 British/US miles. The legua, the longest Spanish unit of measurement, equated to 3 millas or 5,000 varas; it was equal to 4,180 metres or 2.597 standard British/US miles.

The pulgada was sub-divided into twelve lineas, each equivalent to 1.935mm (or about a thirteenth of a British inch). In theory, the linea was in turn sub-divided into twelve puntos, each about 0.16mm, but this last played no part except in the measurement of the thickness of threads. In this book, we quote lineas only as fractions of a pulgada (eg three lineas is rendered as a quarter of a pulgada).

As explained above, throughout this book we converted almost all dimensions into pies (and pulgadas where relevant). Not only were many dimensions before 1750 quoted in codos, or (in the 19th century) in metres, but during the English phase of construction the dimensions were recorded solely in British units. Similarly, the dimensions quoted elsewhere for the ships acquired in 1817–18 from the Russians were also recorded in British units of length. All these figures have been converted into the Spanish units to help comparisons, but with metric equivalent given in brackets.

Tonnage is somewhat easier to define, as the standard tonelada de arqueo (or Spanish measurement ton) was – like the English burthen ton – a measure of cubic capacity rather than weight. It equated to about 1.42 cubic metres. Tonnages of ships are given solely in toneladas, although we use the word ‘ton’ (or the abbreviation ‘t’ after a numeral). The process used to measure this tonnage was called arqueamiento. The reader should bear in mind that the word tonelada, like the English ‘ton’, does not in itself signify whether it is a measure of weight or of cubic capacity. While a vessel’s displacement (which is a unit of weight) is infrequently recorded, we indicate this by ‘(disp.)’

While toneladas de arqueo are a measure of cubic capacity (or volume), we need to define units of weight in order to deal with the weight of gun projectiles and broadsides. The Spanish ton weight was equivalent to about 1,150kg; it was divided into 20 quintales (‘hundredweights’), each of 4 arrobas (‘quarters’) which were in turn each comprised of 25 libras (‘pounds’). The Spanish libra thus equated to 0.4608kg compared with the British pound of 0.4536kg, and therefore was 1.5873% heavier; as an example 36 libras equated to 36lb 9.143oz. Obviously the weight of projectiles were in libras, but for ease of reference for English-speaking readers we have used the term ‘32pdr’ when referring to a gun firing a projectile of 32 libras, not of 32lbs, etc.

The metric system of weights and measures was introduced in Spain by legislation of 19 July 1849, and its application – replacing the previous system – was enshrined by a Royal Ordnance on 9 December 1852.

A NOTE ON HOW MEASUREMENTS RELATE TO VESSELS

Where possible, we have given four principal measurements for each design of vessel, using the units of measurement described above. These are shown, where known, in the format: eslora, quilla x manga x puntal, where:

eslora is the length of the ship measured on the lowest planked deck, inclusive of both the keel and the overhangs at both bow and stern (the extensions of the lower deck beyond the keel). Note this is not directly equivalent to the British ‘gundeck length’ and certainly not to the ship’s overall length.

quilla is the length of the straight portion of the keel, excluding the sloping portions of the keel towards the bow (the roda) and towards the stern (the codaste).

manga is the beam of the ship, measured at its widest point at the midpoint of the length.

puntal is the depth of the hold, measured from the undersurface of the lowest continuous deck to the floor of the hold. Throughout our period, it is approximately half of the length of the manga.

Other important dimensions which we do not give in this volume, but which can be encountered in some Spanish archives, are:

plan is the horizontal breadth of the flattened portion of the ship’s hold at its widest part.

lanzamiento de proa is the horizontal length of the forward projection of the ship’s prow beyond the front end of the keel.

lanzamiento de la popa is the horizontal length of the rearward projection of the ship’s sternpost beyond the rear end of the keel.

Note that the lanzamiento de proa and the lanzamiento de la popa together equalled the difference between the eslora and the quilla.

A NOTE ON NAMES

We have quoted the names of each Spanish vessel in full. Many vessels had two names, where the conventional name was not a religious one, as in that case a vessel would be awarded a second religious patronym (or advocación). We, in common with other sources, have referred to such names as aliases. It is worth mentioning that in official communications of the navy, the prefix ‘San’, ‘Santa’ or ‘Nuestra Señora de’ was often suppressed and the vessel designated solely by the remainder of the name, but for the benefit of English-speaking readers we have employed the full name throughout.

In terms of geographical locations, we have respected the multi-lingual communities that comprise the Spanish monarchy’s territory by using local names rather than Castilian ones where Castilian is not the local language. Thus we have used Gallego names for locations in Galicia, Euskara names for locations in the Basque country, and Catalan names for locations in Catalonia; one exception we have made is for the capital of the Guipúzcoa province, where we have used the better-known Castilian name of San Sebastián rather than the indigenous Donostia. However, we stress that all Spanish archives were recorded in Castilian Spanish, and all other terms used throughout this book are in that national language.

A NOTE ON DATES

All dates in this book, where given numerically, are in the European format day.month.year, and not in the American format month.day.year, but in any date quoted in the notes at the start of each class’s entry we give the month as a word, to make it easier.

In 1582 Pope Gregory ordained a new calendar (the one we use nowadays), which was adopted immediately by Spain and other Catholic countries. This replaced the former Julian calendar (in use since 45 BC), but was not adopted by Britain (and its then colonies) until September 1752. This resulted in most dates recorded in British archives (from 1700 to 1752) being eleven days behind the dates used throughout most other European countries (the difference had been ten days in the 17th century). As an example, the Battle of Cape Passaro is recorded by the British as 31 July 1718, whereas for Spain and most other nations it was on 11 August 1718.

We have used the Gregorian (‘New Style’) dates for all events in this book, except where the building dates for ships captured from Britain are quoted, which up to 1752 are always in Julian (‘Old Style’, abbreviated to OS) dates to match British shipbuilding records. This also applies to ships built in Russia, as Russia retained the Julian calendar until the early 20th century. However, one oddity we have altered from the Julian calendar, which commenced each year on 25th March, has been to move the start of a year back to 1st January to coincide with modern practice.

A NOTE ON SPANISH NAVAL RANKS

The system of commissioned officer ranks in the Real Armada roughly paralleled those in the British and French navies, but there were significant differences. We set these ranks out below, with their equivalent titles in English. Please note the abbreviations which we have used for these ranks throughout this book, which we have shown in brackets:

Table 1: Spanish Commissioned officer ranks, abbreviations and equivalents

The above abbreviations are used throughout this book, but in most Spanish sources the intervening ‘d’ (signifying ‘de’ or ‘of’) is omitted. Please note that the Spanish term Almirante did not signify a naval rank, but was a post – that of the second-in-commend of a fleet, the overall fleet commander being the Capitán General.

A NOTE ON SPANISH MONETARY UNITS

During the period covered by this book, the economic health of the Spanish nation, the fiscal stability of the Spanish government and the available operational funding for Spanish naval operations were all immediately dependent on the flow of both gold and silver from Spain’s New World holdings in both South and Central America. Increases and decreases in the production of bullion and disruptions in the flow of azogue (mercury) convoys due to weather conditions or raids by corsairs or enemy naval units could and did have near catastrophic impact in Spain. During the first 150 years from 1500 to 1650, the gradual price increase for gold and silver has been calculated as six-fold. Similar figures are not available for the period from 1650 through 1808, but it was very certainly along similar lines. The slow decline in Spanish power in relation to that of her North European rivals can be attributed in large part to this process.

Before leaving this topic, it should be noted that any given value of gold or silver brought to Spain by azogue convoys included percentage distributions between the value assigned to the Crown and that allowed for merchants doing the shipping. As is the case for all forms of taxation in all nations and at all times, there was a degree of fraud involved by the shippers.

The only existing physical coins were the gold escudos (coins of 8, 4, 2 and 1 escudos) and the silver reales (coins of 8, 4, 2, and 1 reales). As a fractional currency, and at the same time, as a unit of account, there were the reales de vellón (vellón was an alloy of silver and copper, with silver decreasing in proportion over time).

The value correspondence of these coins is expressed in the attached table:

Table 2: Value equivalence of Spanish coinage.

The internal transactions could be made in all the previous coins while the external transactions were made only in silver.

In addition to the previous physical currencies, there were other fictional currencies: the peso fuerte and the simple peso which were the denominations used in Spanish America to designate the 20 reales de vellón (or 8 reales de plata) and the 15 reales de vellón, respectively.

For English language readers, it is of interest to know that the exchange rate between Spanish currency and the pound sterling at least to the end of the 18th century was 1£ = 90/100 reales de vellón.

A NOTE ON SPANISH FLAGS AND ROYAL ARMS

During the Habsburg era, Spanish warships flew a variety of heraldic, religious, and national flags. The primary national design was the ‘ragged cross’ or saltire raguly, which consisted of two crossed green tree trunks – with the branches lopped off at intervals – on a plain white background, but with the royal arms of Spain at the centre. The royal arms consisted of a shield surmounted by a crown, the collar of the Order of the Golden Fleece, and the motto ‘Plus Ultra’ (or ‘More Beyond’), the shield itself being a complex series of emblems representing the multiple kingdoms acquired by Carlos I and his son Felipe II during the 16th century. Not only did the emblems indicate Habsburg rule in the Peninsula – Castile, Leon, Aragon and Granada (and even the annexed Portugal was represented from 1591 until 1685, long after Portuguese independence had been conceded); it also portrayed other realms, specifically Sicily, Austria, Burgundy ancient and contemporary, Brabant, Flanders and Tyrol. Later the emblems were reduced to a simplified version which contained the emblems of Castile and Leon alone.

With the passing of the Habsburgs, a new royal arms was created for the incoming Bourbon dynasty, with the addition of a large central escutcheon bearing three fleurs-de-lis (the Bourbons’ own emblem). The flags themselves were redesigned by a fresh Royal Order in 1732, which carried separate motifs for the three naval departments based on Cádiz, Ferrol and Cartagena, although all shared the common feature of the royal arms in the centre, on a white background. In 1759 the royal arms were revised to include the six blue fleurs-de-lis of the closely-linked Farnese family (in the Duchy of Parma) and the roundels – five red and three above them blue (bearing gold fleurs-de lis) – of the Medici family (ruling the Grand Duchy of Tuscany).

In 1785 it was decided that the three departmental designs should be replaced, because the flags were too easily confused at a distance (or when obscured by battle smoke) with those of the French Royal Navy or with the White Squadron of the British Royal Navy. The new single design, created by a Royal Order on 28 May 1785, was to last – with some variations – into the present day (except during the Republican era of 1931–36). It used the Spanish national colours of red and yellow, with horizontal red stripes top and bottom (each a quarter of the flag in depth), separated by a wide yellow stripe (half the flag’s depth) on which appeared the reduced arms of Spain (specifically those emblems of Castile and Leon) surmounted by a crown. The naval jack was (and is) quite different, comprising a square flag divided into quarters, bearing the emblems of Castile, Leon, Aragon and Navarre.

A NOTE ON CONVERSIONS

A problem experienced in the compilation of the 24 chapters describing the various classifications of vessels comprising the Spanish Navy has been the interesting fact that a sizeable number of vessels, most particularly those falling into the category of smaller vessels, began their careers under one classification only to have their classification changed during their careers. As a result, we have chosen to treat these converted vessels as though they were new ships, and accordingly in such rare cases have placed an entry in each of two separate sections of our work under different Chapters under their differing classifications, in contrast to the vast majority of vessels which require only a single entry. In some instances, these changes were made at early stages in the affected vessels’ careers and in others they were made at mid-points in their careers. To complicate matters, adequate descriptions of the alterations made are frequently lacking beyond the fact that the changes were authorised by Spanish naval authorities, particularly those dealing with structural alterations and armaments carried. After some consideration, the decision has been made to list here all known changes in classifications without attempting to eliminate those of too little significance to warrant their inclusion here. Cross references have been attached to all vessels included in this listing to prevent confusion in the body of the text.

As a final point of clarification, some of these vessels appear with slightly different spellings under their alternate classifications and in some cases, their gender is transformed because Spanish practices were not uniform between different ship types (eg xebecs were always described in masculine terms while corvettes were always feminine).

With regards to the vessels included here, we have organised them on the basis of initial classification and then grouped them along the lines of our designated Chapters. In doing so, we recognise that vessels beginning their lives in one classification may well have spent the better part of their active careers in other classifications.

It is our opinion that the Spanish Navy may well have been more given to this type of reclassification as a result of the wide range of environments that commissioned vessels were assigned to across the vast extent of the Spanish Empire during the period covered by this work. We leave it to the readers to form their own judgements.

Navíos

SANTÍSIMA TRINIDAD. Navío converted from 3 to 4 decks. Completed on 20.3.1769 as a 3-decker of 116 guns. Reconstructed as a 4-decker of 136 guns in 1795.

SAN CARLOS. Navío converted from 2 to 3 decks. Launched as an 80-gun 2-decker in 30.4.1765. Reconstructed as a 122-gun 3-decker in 1801 and completed in 12.1804.

RAYO. Navío converted from 2 to 3 decks. Completed as an 80-gun 2-decker in 15.8.1750. Reconstructed as a 100-gun 3-decker in 1804.

Small Frigates and Corvettes

JUPITER. Corvette completed in 1723. Converted into a brulote in 1725.

WINCHCOMB. Merchant frigate captured from the British on 3.9.1779. Converted in 1783 at Ferrol into a 6-gun urca. Decommissioned and BU in 1804.

HÉROE. Corvette captured in 1781. Converted into an urca in 1787.

CASTOR. British whaler captured as a light frigate in 1797. Originally renamed Nueva Marquesa de Osorno in Spanish service but later renamed Castor. Converted into an urca in 1814.

LEVANTE. British whaling corvette Levant seized in on 23.2.1797. Converted into an urca on 16.9.1799.

Brigs and Brigantines

HOPP. Brig built in England in 1752. Acquired on 30.12.1762 and taken into Spanish service in 1763. Converted into a cutter on 20.10.1779.

SAN CARLOS. Brig launched on 12.12.1772. Converted into a packet in 1773.

PERUANO. Brig completed at Cartagena del Limeño in 1793. Converted into a corvette on 25.8.1805.

BATIDOR. Brig Batidor launched in 1796 acquired from the Correos Maritimos (Postal Service) in 1802 to serve as an aviso. Converted into a corvette designated as Batidora in early 1803.

AMISTAD. Brig completed in 1799. Converted into a corvette in 1804.

GÁLVEZ. Brig first mentioned at Montevideo in 1811. Rearmed on 2.11.1813 as a zumaca

PARANÁ, 18 guns. Prize Argentinian insurgent brig Our Lady of Caldas taken on 2.3.1811. Reclassified as a brig-zumaca on 23.9.1811. Recaptured by insurgents in 1814.

LIGERO. Brig purchased by the Consulate of Lima on 15.2.1816 on 14.4.1817. Converted into a brig-schooner on 14.4.1817.

PROVIDENCIA. Brig-schooner first mentioned as departing Puerto Cabello on 9.11.1816. Converted into a schooner on 28.2.1817.

CAUTIVO. Insurgent Colombian brig Liberal. Captured on 12.2.1828 and designated as Cautivo in Spanish service. Converted into a corvette designated as Cautiva on 28.2.1829.

Bomb Vessels

Santa Eulalia and Santa Casilda were a pair of 10-gun bomb vessels completed on 17.3.1775. Converted into 2-masted 18-gun packets in 1787 after having been first proposed as 3-masted corvettes. Santa Eulalia ultimately converted from a packet into a fireship. Santa Eulalia last mentioned in 1802. Santa Casilda put up for sale on 19.6.1813 but scrapped without buyers at La Carraca on 30.7.1813.

Storeships (Urcas)

ABASCAL. Merchant brig completed in Dalmatia in 1805 as Amable María and classified as an urca designated as Abascal in Spanish service with the advocation of Nuestra Señora de Covadonga. Converted into a corvette designated as Abascal in 2.1812.

Fireships

TRUCHESTER. Prize captured in 1780. Classified on 7.8.1780 as a fireship and reclassified as a brigantine on 25.10.1780.

Packets

JÚPITER. Lead ship of a class of packets built at La Carraca on 2.4.1753. Converted into a small frigate by 1769.

SAN GIL. Packet completed in 1777. Converted into a corvette in 1782.

SAN PIO. Packet completed in 1777. Converted into a corvette in 1782.

NUESTRA SEÑORA DE ARÁNZAZU. Packet constructed in 1779. Reclassified as a frigate when lengthened by 7ft in 1788.

Polacres and Zumacas

ARÁNAZU. Zumaca stationed at the Rio de Plata in 1809. Last mentioned in 1816 as a brig.

Galleys

SANTO CRISTO. Xebec completed at Havana in 1780. Converted into a brig at Havana on 3.2.1784. Stricken as unsuitable on 25.1.1786.

Xebecs

SAN SEBASTIÁN. 18-gun xebec laid down on 12.3.1774 at Cartagena. Rerigged as 24-gun corvette Sebastiana in 1809. Disarmed in 2.1818. Stricken at El Callao in 1822.

MURCIANO. 22-gun xebec launched in 1779. Converted between 1804 and 1808 into a corvette designated as Murciana.

SANTO CRISTO. 30-gun xebec built in Havana in 1780. Found unsuitable and converted into a brig at Havana on 3.2.1784. Found unsuitable as a brig and stricken on 25.1.1786

Barks and Misticos

ÁGUILA. Mistico constructed in Barcelona in 1845. Converted into a brig-schooner at La Carraca on 12.9.1850. Last mentioned in 1853

Feluccas

RESISTENCIA. Felucca first reported as operating against Venezuelan insurgents in Costa Firme on 8.4.1815. Converted into a mistico at Cumaná on 9.11.1816. Lost at the battle on Lake Maracaibo on 23.7.1823.

Schooners

SAN GREGORIO TAUMATURGO, 14 guns. Schooner first mentioned on 3.12.1786. Referred to as a balajú operating in Cartagena de Indias between 1794 and 1799. Last mentioned in the EGA in 1808

SUTIL. Schooner completed in 10/11.1791 and later converted into a brig. Last mentioned in 1798.

ACTIVA, 10 guns. Schooner Activa launched on 1.1792. Believed to have been converted into a brig designated as Activo. Last mentioned on 21.10.1815. Incorporated into the Mexican Navy in 7.1821.

ALAVESA. Schooner Alavesa completed in 1802. Converted into a brig designated as Alavés at Callao in 12.1808.

ANDALUZA. 18-gun schooner built for the Carrera de Indias on 23.6.1804 as Nuestra Señora de las Mercedes. Designated as Andaluza in Spanish service. Converted into a brig also designated as Andaluza in 8.1805.

BELONA. Former 4-gun schooner purchased by private collection by business interests in Veracruz in 5.1817. Formally assigned in Havana as replacement for the brig Marte on 6.2.1822. Converted into a 16-gun brig-schooner in 1823. Sold on 21.12.1827.

SORPRESA Class of four schooners was ordered from Bordeaux on 20.6.1819 All four vessels were converted into brig-schooners by no later than 1823: Sorpresa, Mágica, Diligente, Encantadora.

MAHONESA. Schooner Mahonesa completed in 1821. Converted into a brig-schooner in 1847 and renamed Ebro. Last mentioned in 1855.

Pailebotes and Balajús

ZELOSO -Balajú completed on 4.8.1804. Converted into a brig on 17.3.1809.

SAN CARLOS 10 guns -Balajú first mentioned at Havana on 11.7.1783. Put up for sale as a schooner due to deteriorated condition on 25.1.1786.

DON QUIJOTE (EL AVENTURERO) - Balajú taken as a 12-gun prize on 12.3.1785 in the Rio Azúcar by the schooner Chula. Designated also as El Aventurero to distinguish vessel from a contemporary galley with the same name. Sold as a 16-gun schooner at Cartagena de Indias on 27.1.1790.

Balandras

NUESTRA SEÑORA DE ATOCHA. Completed as a balandra (cutter) launched on 16.12.1780. Converted into a brig in 10.1781.

RESOLUCIÓN. British balandra (cutter) captured in 1780. Converted into a brig on 5.4.1793.

TÁRTARO. British balandra (cutter) Tartar seized in 1781. Converted into a brig on 11.12.1794.

GALLEGA Class of balandras (cutters) were originally built at Ferrol in 1797 and 1799 respectively and converted into schooners in 1808: Gallega (Santa Polonia), Brava (Santa Engracia).

PENÉLOPE. Balandra (cutter) seized from the British on 9.7.1799. Commissioned as a brig for coastguard duties between Caracas and Puerto Cabello on 22.11.1803.

Chronology of the Trastamara and Habsburg Eras

Chronology of the Bourbon Era