Nanotechnology for Drug Delivery and Pharmaceuticals

By Jay Singh

Nanotechnology for Drug Delivery and Pharmaceutical Sciences presents various drug-delivery techniques that utilize nanotechnology for the biomedical domain, highlighting both therapeutic and diagnostic applications. The book provides important facts and detailed studies on different promising nanocarriers like liposomes, exosomes and virus-based nanocarriers. Moreover, it explores these nanocarriers' utilization in the therapeutic applications of various diseases such as cancer, inflammation, neurodegenerative disorders like Huntington’s disease, Alzheimer's disease, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), and inflammatory bowel disease. In addition, the book describes how nanotechnology has efficiently overtaken conventional dosage forms and provided comfort and ease to patients.

Relevant information regarding market trends, patents and social-economic factors are also provided, making this the perfect reference for doctors, researchers and scientists working in the fields of medicine, biochemistry, biotechnology, nanobiotechnology and the pharmaceutical sciences.

• Gives a brief description of the utilization of nanotechnology in the drug-delivery domain
• Highlights the properties of nanocarriers, their diagnostic and imaging applications, and their potential role in clinical diagnosis
• Focuses on future developments and possibilities, allowing readers to enhance and explore the remaining gaps

• Language: English
• Publisher: Academic Press
• Release date: Jan 10, 2023
• ISBN: 9780323953269

Book preview

Section 1

Targeted drug delivery

Outline

Chapter 1 Introduction to drug-delivery techniques based on nanotechnological approaches

Chapter 2 Methods of fabricating various nanocarriers for targeted drug delivery

Chapter 3 Biologically synthesized nanocarriers for targeted drug delivery applications

Chapter 4 Nanomedicine and nanocarriers for cancer treatment

Chapter 5 Role of nanocarriers for inflammation treatment

Chapter 6 Nanodiagnostics and nanomedicines for neurodegenerative disorders

Chapter 7 Potentialities of nanomedicine and nanocarriers for infectious disease treatment

Chapter 8 Recent plant-based nanomedicine and nanocarrier for cancer treatment

Chapter 9 Utility of nanomedicine and nanocarriers for noninfectious disease treatment

Chapter 10 Passive and active targeted drug delivery strategies

Chapter 11 Utility of various drug delivery systems and their advantages and disadvantages

Chapter 12 Clinical applications and future clinical trials of the drug delivery system

Chapter 13 Advantages of nanodrug targeting than conventional dosage system

Chapter 14 Risk assessment of various nanomaterials: health safety perspective

Chapter 1

Introduction to drug-delivery techniques based on nanotechnological approaches

Kshitij RB Singh¹, Gunjan Nagpure², Jay Singh¹ and Ravindra Pratap Singh²,    ¹Department of Chemistry, Institute of Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India,    ²Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Science, Indira Gandhi National Tribal University, Amarkantak, Madhya Pradesh, India

Abstract

Nanotechnology is a relevant field of science and technology that shows its advancements in various domains. Nanoparticles have captured considerable attention in biomedical science, as it holds tremendous potential as a functional drug delivery system (DDS). In contrast to a conventional DDS, a nano-based DDS is an excellent technique due to its potential advantages in a targeted DDS. Nanotechnology offers numerous benefits in treating human disorders by a target delivery of precision medicine at a specific site and delivering drugs at the infected zone of action, owing to which it has emerged as a powerful tool to evade the drawbacks of conventional DDS s. On the other hand, nanomedicines possess diverse applications (drug delivery, antibacterial, vaccine development, diagnosis, and imaging) and act as biological, chemotherapeutic, and immunotherapeutic agents to treat various diseases. Moreover, it is evident from the literature that nanomaterials (NMs) are successfully utilized in formulating anticancer drugs with 5-fluorouracil, doxorubicin, dexamethasone, and paclitaxel. Biologically and physiochemically synthesized NMs, such as quantum dots, polylactic acid, and polylactic/glycolic acid-based NMs, liposomes, lipids, and carbon nanotubes exhibit various technological advantages as drug carriers in treating neurodegenerative diseases, tumors, and chronic cancer.

Keywords

Nanocarriers; drug delivery system; nanomaterials

Introduction

Nanotechnology is a multidisciplinary subject dealing with nanosized materials (1–100 nm) and has encountered its profound use in various domains like electronics, chemistry, biotechnology, engineering, and physical and material science. Moreover, nanoscale materials can be a system or device, or these could be composites, complexes, or supramolecular structures (Wilkinson, 2003). In addition to the developments in other scientific fields like engineering and electronics, nanotechnology also shows significant advancements in conventional biomedical applications, including drug delivery, gene therapy, imaging, and novel drug discovery techniques (Choi & Montemagno, 2016). Moreover, with one dimension, nanoparticles (NPs) with <100 nm in the range consist of different biodegradable materials like natural and synthetic polymers. Other than larger micro molecules, NPs are bounded up by the cells more efficiently and, therefore, can be explored as effective in drug development, drug delivery, and treating several disorders, as illustrated in Fig. 1.1 (Sahu et al., 2021). However, for therapeutic applications, drugs can either be attached to the particle’s surface or assimilated to the matrix of the particle. A drug targeting system should be able to control the consequences of a drug entering the biological environment (Liu et al., 2009).

Figure 1.1 The schematic illustration of the use of nanoparticles in the biomedical domain. Reproduced with permission of Sahu, T., Ratre, Y. K., Chauhan, S., Bhaskar, L. V. K. S., Nair, M. P., & Verma, H. K. (2021). Nanotechnology based drug delivery system: Current strategies and emerging therapeutic potential for medical science. Journal of Drug Delivery Science and Technology, 63, 102487. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jddst.2021.102487.

Furthermore, nano-drug technologies represent a crucial tool for enlightening drug markets in the pharmaceutical industry. It has been reported that novel drug delivery systems (DDSs) can substantially contribute to global pharmaceutical sales. According to strategy, about 13% of the recent global pharmaceutical market is marked by sales of products accumulating a DDS (Mohanty et al., 2017; Swamy & Sinniah, 2016). Currently, many new pharmaceutical industries offer advanced pharma products and adorning their efforts toward developing more efficient, adequate, and performance-based new DDSs. With this development, the demand for DDSs is rising gradually due to its advancements over the conventional approach (Thilakarathna & Rupasinghe, 2013). Nanomaterials (NMs) have shown their influential role in drug delivery at the targeted disease site to enhance the uptake of poorly soluble drugs. Moreover, polylactic acid (PLA)- and polylactic/glycolic acid (PLGA)-based NPs have been successfully formulated to encapsulate dexamethasone. Furthermore, nanocarriers have also shown promising advancements in targeted DDSs. Owning to the high surface area to volume ratio, nanocarriers offer the capability to alter the bioactivity and basic properties of drugs. Furthermore, nanotechnology has emerged as a powerful tool in evading conventional DDSs (Kamal et al., 2012).

This book chapter entitled Introduction to drug-delivery techniques based on nanotechnological approaches intends to highlight the utility of nanotechnological approaches in DDSs in the biomedical domain. Further, this book will elaborate on the method for fabricating and biologically synthesizing nanocarriers for targeted DDSs in Chapters 2 and 3. Chapter 4 discusses nanomedicines and nanocarriers in cancer treatment. Furthermore, Chapter 5 discusses the role of nanocarrier in inflammation treatment. Chapters 6 and 7 deal with the potentialities of nanocarriers and nanomedicines for treating infectious diseases and neurodegenerative disorders, followed by Chapter 8, which deals with the utility of recent plant-based nanomedicine and nanocarriers for cancer treatments. Chapter 9 deals with the utility of nanomedicines and nanocarriers for treating noninfectious diseases. Chapter 10 discusses the passive and active targeted drug delivery strategies. Chapter 11 deals with the utility of various DDSs and their advantages and disadvantages. Moreover, Chapter 12 deals with clinical applications and future clinical trials of DDSs. Chapter 13 deals with the advantages of nano-drug targeting conventional dosage systems. At last, Chapter 14 deals with the risk assessment of various NMs, along with health safety and perspective.

Synthesis of nanocarriers and nanomedicines for targeted drug delivery

A nanocarrier is a NM ranging in a diameter between 1 and 1000 nm used as a transport element for another substance, such as a drug (Wang et al., 2012). Furthermore, nanocarriers have provided advanced benefits in the biotechnology and biomedical domains and play a unique role in the area of nanoscience and technology (Singh & Lillard, 2009). Moreover, nanocarriers exhibit several advanced characteristics that integrate into drug delivery, including protection against active drug degradation, a decrease in the intensity of undesirable toxic side effects, and improved and more efficient concentration in the target tissues (Hallan et al., 2016; How et al., 2013). It shows unique advancements in the biomedical domain; therefore it is essential to synthesize the nanocarriers. On the other hand, nanomedicines offer a DDS at the nanoscale; the branch of medicines provides the knowledge and tools of nanotechnology to prevent and treat the disease. Nanomedicines use nanoscale materials, such as nanorobots and biocompatible NPs, for living organisms’ delivery, diagnosis, and sensing purposes (Soares et al., 2018). This section mainly focuses on synthesizing nanocarriers and nanomedicines via biological and physiochemical approaches.

Biological synthesis

Nowadays, biological approaches are preferable compared to other synthesis approaches due to their various advanced properties. They are convenient, easy, cost-effective, eco-friendly, and minimize the use of toxic chemicals. Biological methods comprise the utilization of various living organisms, such as plants, yeast, and animals. Moreover, various other natural components are also utilized, such as pectin, honey, chitosan, glucose, and starch. Plants extract has been used to synthesize the various NPs-based nanocarriers, such as metal- and metal-oxide-based NPs are used as nanocarriers to deliver drugs in the targeted region, as illustrated in Fig. 1.2 (Singh et al., 2021). Moreover, to synthesize various nanocarriers biologically, selecting the correct plant or microorganism is necessary as different plants show the difference in terms of biochemical processing, enzyme activity, phytochemical constituents, and so on.

Figure 1.2 This figure illustrates the utility of green synthesized nanocarriers in targeted drug delivery.

Akbarian et al. (2020) studied the biological synthesis of novel chitosan-coated ZnO nanocarrier using ethanolic extract of Camellia sinensis (green tea) loaded with an anticancer drug paclitaxel (PTX) for selective drug delivery in MCF-7 cell line. Chitosan is an essential polymer obtained from the chitin’s deacetylation carrying a positive charge. As solid tumors have a negative charge, chitosan carrying a positive charge can be attracted by these cells and facilitates drug delivery. Moreover, mechanical properties, film-forming, chemical modifications, cost-effectiveness, and high permeability toward water are some of the characteristics that have introduced this polymer as a stabilizing agent in NPs. PTX is an alkaloid, a chemotherapeutic compound derived from plants that show its antitumor activity against prostate, breast, and cervical cancer. As a result, the study reveals that ZnO–Ch–PTX NPs with low cytotoxic effects show promising effects in the DDS. Zafar et al. (2021) studied a green synthesized chitosan-coated cerium oxide nanocarrier derived from the seed extract of Amomum subulatum (aka black cardamom) loaded with drug ciprofloxacin, which shows the cytotoxic effect against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus-induced mastitis diagnosed in dairy cattle. Globally, cancer is reported as the significant cause of mortality, with 18.1 million new cases. It has been reported that hematite (Fe2O3) shows a good effect in cancer therapy. Ansari et al. (2022) studied a green synthesized porous magnetic iron nanocarrier loaded with an anticancer drug derived from fresh Nepeta cataria L. leaves extract, showing cytotoxic activity against human cancer cell line. Oliveira et al. (2018) studied the biological synthesis of carbon-based magnetic nanocarrier derived from the methanolic extract of Rubus ulmifolius Schott flowers showing potential effects in drug delivery. Studies reported that carbon-based magnetic nanocarriers functionalized with Pluronic F-68 show a synergistic impact on drug delivery to treat cancer patients. Moreover, Ojha and Das reported, previous studies investigated that microbial biopolyesteric nanocarrier (MBPNc) [poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate] (P(3HB-co-3HV) was fabricated using corn steep liquor, sugarcane molasses, and palm oil derived from yeast, Wickerhamomyces anomalus VIT-NN01 under stress (sound wave) condition and optimized nutrient. Further, the same copolymer (P(3HB-co-3HV) was utilized to synthesize MBPNc that is used as a biodegradable and biocompatible nanocarrier for constant delivery of drug levofloxacin and amoxicillin. Further, the MBPNc loaded with drug levofloxacin and amoxicillin exhibits diverse advantages to minimize the bacterial resistance incidence and for controlled delivery of antibiotic in future at targeted site (Ojha & Das, 2021). Furthermore, one study reports that naturally derived protein, silk fibroin from Bombyx mori silkworm, shows promising results in the synthesis of protein-based nanocarriers due to its flexibility, biodegradability, biocompatibility, and mechanical toughness which are further utilized for tissue engineering and wound healing process (Jacob et al., 2018; Numata & Kaplan, 2010; Samrot et al., 2020).

Moreover, green synthesized nanomedicines have also received considerable attention from researchers in biomedical domains, such as diagnosing, monitoring, control, prevention, and disease treatment. Nanomedicines utilize biocompatible NMs for therapeutic purposes to treat various diseases. According to recent reports, phytochemicals, such as flavonoids, alkaloids, phenols, alcohols, terpenoids, sugars, and proteins, present in plants are involved in the stabilization and reduction of metal ions. Flavonoids are used to treat many pathological disorders like cancer, Alzheimer’s sickness, atherosclerosis, neurodegenerative disease, and macrophage oxidation. Total flavonoids present in the Coriandrum sativum and Alternanthera tenella leaf extracts are majorly involved in the silver NPs (AgNPs) synthesis and show clinical applications in curing antidandruff, antiacne, and antibreast cancer, which offers excellent efficiency against Malassezia furfur, Propionibacterium acnes, and human breast adenocarcinoma cells, respectively, as reported by Sathishkumar et al. (2018). Raghunandan et al. (2010, 2009, 2011) studied green synthesized Ag and gold (Au) NPs derived from aqueous soaked clove buds (Syzygium aromaticum) and antimalignant guava (Psidium guajava) leaf extract show anticancer efficacy against four different cancer cell lines, human kidney, bone marrow, human cervix, leukemia, and so on. Sabaratnam et al. (2013) studied green synthesized AgNPs derived from Ganoderma neo-japonicum imazeki used as a disinfectant and antimicrobial agents show cytotoxic effects against MDA-MB-231 human breast cancer cells. Moreover, Priyadarshini et al. studied the anisotropic AgNPs synthesis derived from Bacillus flexus strain possess eco-friendly nature shows promising antimicrobial property against multidrug-resistant human pathogens. Further studies reveal that strains of S. aureus, Enterobacter cloacae, Lactobacillus acidophilus, Bacillus licheniformis, Bacillus cereus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Bacillus subtilis could also induce AgNPs synthesis (Priyadarshini et al., 2013; Shivaji et al., 2011).

Physiochemical synthesis

Physiochemically synthesized nanocarriers possess unique properties, due to which it offers relevant application in biomedical science, followed by functionalized DDSs. Various types of nanocarriers are synthesized via different physiochemical methods.

Solid lipid nanocarriers, with sizes 50–100 nm, were synthesized via hot homogenization, high shear homogenization, ultrasonication, cold homogenization, spray drying, and microemulsions. The synthesized nanocarriers show the most advanced applications like targeted drug delivery to solid tumors, in vivo and in vitro drug delivery to solid tumors, followed by antitubercular chemotherapy due to its unique properties like they exhibit better stability, are biodegradable, act as a colloidal carrier, as well as better upgradeability (Kingsley et al., 2006). Moreover, quantum dot nanocarriers with size 2–10 nm synthesized via e-beam lithography, X-ray lithography, ion plantation, molecular beam epitaxy, and luminescence features carry unique electronic properties, high light stability, self-assembly followed by chemical reduction, and continuous absorption spectra that displays bioimaging and biomarker detection applications (Freeman et al., 2011; Geißler et al., 2010). Further, magnetic nanocarriers with sizes 1–100 nm are synthesized via glass crystallization, citrate gel process, and metal alkoxide hydrolysis method, which carries novel properties like high colloidal stability and superparamagnetic chemical stability that reveals biosensing, imaging, and functionalized AuNP-improved drug delivery applications (Hallan et al., 2016). Furthermore, carbon nanotubes–based nanocarriers with 0.4–3 nm in size exhibit unique electrical and elastic properties and possess crystalline nature that manifests various applications like peptide delivery, gene, and drug delivery, tissue engineering, cancer cell identification as well as artificial implantation (Müller et al., 2000). Moreover, polymer-based nanocarriers with 10–100 nm size synthesize via emulsification/solvent diffusion method, polymerization, nanoprecipitation, salting out process, solvent evaporation, and dialysis method that carries unique properties like are biodegradable, effective cell membrane permeation that possesses active and passive drug delivery, high concentration of drug delivery as well as maintains volatile pharmaceutical agent stability (López-Moreno et al., 2010).

However, different NMs are synthesized biologically and physiochemically, and it plays a significant role in nanoscience and technology. Furthermore, physiochemically synthesized nanomedicines play an essential role in biomedical science. Silicon-based biomaterial serves as a carrier for DDSs. Silicon exhibits biocompatible, biodegradable, eco-friendly, and nontoxic properties, showing promising clinical potential in the biomedical domain. Silicon materials, 2D silicene differing from silicon materials, such as silica or pSi, displaying unique physiochemical advantages like giant magnetoresistance, quantum-spin hall effect, and chiral superconductivity by its unique low-buckled topography. Silicene material is manufactured by physical vapor deposition method on Ag (111) surface and achieved on ZrC (111), Ir (111), MoS2 (111), and ZB (001) substrates under ultrahigh vacuum ambiance. Hence, high intrinsic biocompatibility of silicon components, high photothermal therapeutic capacity, and advantageous biodegradative nature of the 2D nature of silicene promise to broaden the clinical and biomedical use of silicon-based nanoplatforms (Lin et al., 2019). Moreover, cerium oxide NPs (CeO2-NPs) have shown their potential efficiency in different domains, including nanomedicine (Mortazavi Milani et al., 2017). Hosseini et al. (2020) studied that CeO2-NPs are physiochemically synthesized via sol–gel method using poly(allylamine) as stabilizing agent/capping agent. The CeO2-NPs exhibit cytotoxic and biocompatible properties against cancer cell lines and serve as the best candidates for biomedical applications, such as cancer therapy. Moreover, poly(ethylene glycol)–poly(ε-caprolactone) copolymers (PEG–PCL) play an essential role in improved drug delivery. Grossen et al. (2017) studied that PEG–PCL-based nanomedicines are prepared via the emulsification method and show a biocompatible, biodegradable, and stable property. PEG–PCL-based nanomedicines are good candidates showing their advanced efficiency in multicomponent therapies and drug delivery.

Utility of nanocarriers

A nanocarrier is a NM ranging in diameter from 1 to 1000 nm used as a transport element for another substance, such as a drug. Nanocarriers are known as colloidal drug carrier systems owing to their high surface area. They exhibit their potential efficiency in the biomedical domain, which can change drugs’ bioactivity and basic properties (Neubert, 2011). Moreover, decreased toxicities, improved biodistribution and pharmacokinetics, controlled release, and enhanced stability and solubility are the few properties that nanocarriers can assimilate into DDSs. Furthermore, the physicochemical properties of nanocarriers can be regulated by changing their surface properties, shapes, surface charge, sizes, and compositions (ud Din et al., 2017). As a result, the nanocarrier-based platform has received much attention from researchers in delivering drugs at the targeted zone of action to cure various disorders, including tumors and neurodegenerative diseases, with common side effects, as depicted in Fig. 1.3.

Figure 1.3 This figure represents drug-loaded nanocarriers in targeted drug delivery system.

Tumors

A tumor refers to the abnormal growth of body tissues, mainly caused by mutation. Moreover, tumor suppressor genes are responsible for stimulating programmed cell death (apoptosis) or liable for determining cell differentiation and proliferation. These mutated genes lead to metastatic tumors that possess distinctive features of unlimited cell growth, the capability to seize distant and adjacent tissues, the absence of apoptosis, and the inability to turn off the excessive cell division (Javier & Butel, 2008). Tumors grow and behave differently depending upon whether they are cancerous (malignant), precancerous, or noncancerous (benign). Several risk factors are associated with genetic mutations, including physical irritants, carcinogens, heredity, and viruses. Further, traditional chemotherapies are acclimatized for tumor treatment and management that possess many toxic side effects, such as renal, cardiac, hepatic, gastrointestinal, bone marrow, and pulmonary toxicities. Moreover, researchers are trying to limit the chemotherapeutics drug doses by targeting different tumor cells. Furthermore, nanocarriers show good advantages in enhancing the safety profile and therapeutic effectiveness of traditional angiogenic agents. Moreover, these drug-loaded nanocarriers show their potential effects in antitumor chemotherapeutical delivery to the tumor sites either by decorating them with site-specific ligands or exploiting tumor pathogenesis (Hassanpour & Dehghani, 2017). Due to high mortality rates and worldwide popularity, tumors are classified into pancreatic, breast, and lung tumors. The distinct advantages of relative nanocarriers for treating these tumors are analyzed here.

Pancreatic tumor is reported as the fourth leading cause of cancer deaths, that is estimated about 62,210 genders (29,240 women and 32,970 men) are diagnosed with a pancreatic tumor, and about 49,830 genders (23,860 women and 25,970 men) deaths are reported due to pancreatic cancer. It has been reported that, through surgical procedures, only 10%–15% of cases of pancreatic tumors are resolved. There are several risk factors for this malignant disease has been suggested that including a family history of chronic pancreatitis, smoking, male sex, advancing age, non-O blood group, diabetes mellitus, obesity, occupational exposures (nickel, chlorinated hydrocarbon solvents), a high-fat diets, African–American ethnic origin, low diets in vegetable and folate as well as high diets in meat and possibly periodontal disease and Helicobacter pylori infection (Rawla et al., 2019). Family history and cigarette smoking are reported as prime risk factors leading to a multifactorial and complex pancreatic tumor compared to these risk factors. Moreover, two types of tumors that grow in the pancreas are reported: neuroendocrine tumors and exocrine tumors. About 7% of the total neuroendocrine tumors, also known as islet cell tumors, are analyzed, and the rest, 93% of all pancreatic tumors, are exocrine tumors. The most common type of pancreatic cancer is known as adenocarcinoma. Similarly, when most common type begins in the pancreatic ducts, it is known as ductal adenocarcinoma (Halfdanarson et al., 2014). Furthermore, it was estimated that chemotherapy is a widely used method for treating metastatic pancreatic adenocarcinoma and localized advanced-stage pancreatic tumors. For example, gemcitabine is the best therapeutic drug employed to treat pancreatic tumors. Reports suggested that gemcitabine-based therapy replacing FOLFLRINOX, a chemotherapy regimen provides a better survival rate of 11.1 months than the preceding 6.8 months. But according to reports, none of the gemcitabine-based therapy or FOLFLRINOX is proved to be a better result against metastatic pancreatic or advanced tumors in their clinical trials (Lambert et al., 2019).

Nanotechnology has gained considerable attention from biomedical science researchers as nanosize ranged particles are best for visualizing tumors, diagnosis, and localized delivery. Nanocarriers have shown their relevant efficiency in targeting tumor cells. It is also used for enhancing the dose efficiency of imaging and therapeutic contrast agents by increasing their bioavailability and decreasing the toxic effects of angiogenic agents. A solid-lipid NPs-based nanocarrier shows synergistic effects in delivering methotrexate drugs to cure pancreatic tumors (Mitchell et al., 2021). Cucinotto et al. (2013) reported that albumin-obligated PTX-loaded nanocarriers show their potential clinical efficiency in treating the pancreatic tumor. Cabral et al. (2013) prepared a chemotherapeutic drug, oxaliplatin-loaded nanoparticulate micelles, which offer an antitumor effect against the pancreatic tumor. Spadavecchia et al. (2016) reported dicarboxylic acid–terminated polyethylene glycol (PEG)–gold NPs (AuNPs) and doxorubicin-loaded PEG–AuNPs employed as nanocarriers show their potential efficiency in treating Parkinson’s disease (PD) via unique targeting strategy.

Moreover, hypoxia-inducible factor 1a (HIF1a) has emerged over the past decades as a relevant new target for treating pancreatic cancer by enhancing the drug resistance of the angiogenic drug gemcitabine (Gem). Zhao et al. (2015) reported biocompatible lipid-polymer hybrid NPs encapsulating Gem and si-HIF1α were synthesized for treating pancreatic cancer and explored their synergistic antitumor effects in orthotopic and subcutaneous models.

Breast tumor emerges in the epithelium cells of the lobules (15%) or ducts (85%) in the breast’s glandular tissue. From approximately 2016–18 data, it has been reported that there is a risk of approx. 12.9% of women will be diagnosed with female breast cancer at some point in their lifetime (DeSantis et al., 2015). In 2018 it was estimated that about 3,676,262 women are residing with female breast cancer in the United States. In 2020 it was reported that about 2.3 million women were diagnosed with breast cancer, and globally about 685,000 deaths occurred. As of the end of 2020, it has been reported that about 7.8 million women who were alive have been diagnosed with breast cancer in the last five years, making it the world’s most prevalent tumor. For these infected patients, accepted treatments involve neoadjuvant therapy followed by chemotherapy, hormone therapy, and radiation therapy, which aims to diminish tumor size and weight localized within that area to minimize the surgical process, allowing breast protection in various cases (Stoltenberg et al., 2020). As a result, neoadjuvant therapy plays a crucial role in shrinking a tumor before the primary surgery. Examples of neoadjuvant therapy include radiation therapy, hormone therapy, and chemotherapy, which also show potential advantages in preventing additional metastatic spread of the disease (Ginsburg et al., 2020).

Moreover, many antitumor drug-loaded nanocarriers have been reported, which are used as a novel technique for the targeted drug delivery via locoregional lymphatics, which targets tumorous cells and leads to drug delivery with low safety toxicity while accommodating systemic therapeutic levels (Yao et al., 2020). Chawla and Amiji (2002) developed biodegradable poly(epsilon-caprolactone) NPs that are employed to enhance the provincial applications of the drug tamoxifen (Nolvadex or Soltamox), which is used to treat hormone receptor-positive breast tumors. Further studies show that tamoxifen, a selective estrogen receptor prepared by NPs, shows enhanced therapeutic efficiency by carrying the drug in the specific zone of the estrogen receptor.

Lung tumor is the second most prevalent and detected tumor in both men and women and the leading cause of cancer death among both men and women, making up almost 25% of all cancer deaths. American Cancer Society (ACS) estimates lung cancer in the United States for 2022, about 236,740 new cases (117,910 in men and 118,830 in women) and 130,180 death cases (68,820 in men and 61,360 in women). Further, the development of lung tumor cells to a secondary location comparatively to the pancreas and breast leads to more tumor deaths and offers a significant threat to cancer treatments. Studies have shown that inadequate specificity and efficiency is the major problem with chemotherapy techniques. Thus it is essential to evolve targeted and site-specific therapies to accomplish common side effects and adequate efficacy. Moreover, conservative diagnostic methods are reported as inappropriate tumor screening and treatment choices due to their inaccuracy and inexpensive procedures (Cersosimo,