The Excavations at Ismant al-Kharab: Volume 1 - Roman Period Cartonnage from the Kellis 1 Cemetery

By Carlo Rindi Nuzzolo

Excavations by the Dakhleh Oasis Project at Ismant al-Kharab, ancient Kellis in the Dakhleh Oasis, Egypt, revealed the presence of an extensive necropolis dating to the Roman Period, with hundreds of rock-cut tombs containing multiple burials. Termed the Kellis 1 Cemetery, it yielded a range of artifacts and many of the individuals were provided with elaborately decorated cartonnage coverings. This is the largest collection of such material yet discovered in Dakhleh.

This book presents a detailed analysis of the entire corpus of cartonnage found at Kellis in a securely excavated context. These objects, which include mummy masks, foot-cases, and full body covers, were part of the burial accoutrements of the wealthier residents of the village. Stylistic and digital investigation of the artifacts suggests a well-defined craft production, with the presence of multiple groups of craftsmen using specific manufacturing techniques and local traits in their iconographic repertoire. The scale of evidence demonstrates that Kellis was a vibrant community with a dynamic funerary production in contact with nearby areas. Comparison with finds from the neighboring Oasis of Kharga, as well as with artifacts in museums collections and from the antiquities market, suggest a complex network of skilled craftsmen throughout the region.

This is the first comprehensive study of the material. It has been studied in person by the author in the field enabling a detailed appraisal of the items, whether intact or fragmentary. It builds on recent research addressing regionalism and craftsmanship, and constitutes one of the main sources to investigate issues of permanence and change in the indigenous funerary customs of the area.

• Language: English
• Publisher: Oxbow Books
• Release date: Jan 24, 2023
• ISBN: 9781789259056

Carlo Rindi Nuzzolo

Carlo Rindi Nuzzolo has a PhD in Egyptian Archaeology from Monash University and is Marie Skłodowska-Curie Postdoctoral Global Fellow at the University of California, Berkeley, and the Institute for Heritage Science, CNR, Italy. Previously, he was Lead Curator for a cultural heritage project based at the British Museum. His research focuses on Late Period to Roman Period burial customs, cultural heritage protection, provenance research, and the History of Archaeology. His current project, CRAFT, funded by the European Union, builds on the outcomes of the present work by investigating cartonnage regionalism in the Fayum Oasis.

Book preview

Front cover image: Roman mummy mask from Tomb 25 (© Carlo Rindi Nuzzolo / Dakhleh Oasis Project).

Dakhleh Oasis Project: Monograph 22

THE EXCAVATIONS AT ISMANT AL-KHARAB

Edited by Colin A. Hope and Gillian E. Bowen

I

Roman-Period Cartonnage from the Kellis 1 Cemetery

To the memory of my mother

Dakhleh Oasis Project: Monograph 22

THE EXCAVATIONS AT

ISMANT AL-KHARAB

Edited by Colin A. Hope and Gillian E. Bowen

I

Roman-Period Cartonnage

from the Kellis 1 Cemetery

Carlo Rindi Nuzzolo

Published in the United Kingdom in 2023 by

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The Old Music Hall, 106–108 Cowley Road, Oxford, OX4 1JE

and in the United States by

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© Oxbow Books and the author 2023

© All photos/drawings are by the author unless differently stated

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Preface

Within the holistic approach adopted by the Dakhleh Oasis Project from its inception, studies of the demography of the oasis throughout its history to the conversion to Islam are an essential component. During the survey of Dakhleh, commenced in 1978 and as yet not truly complete, numerous cemeteries were identified in various states of preservation, predominantly badly disturbed. The majority dates to the second half of the first millennium BCE and the first centuries of the common era. A slight exception to this is ‘Ain Tirghi (Hope 2019), discovered during the 1982-1983 survey season and located 8 km south-west of modern Balat, explored until 1991. Burials here range in date from the Middle Kingdom to the Ptolemaic period, with a few of later date. Fifty-eight tombs were explored and 826 interments recorded. Unfortunately, resulting from multiple use of individual graves either for contemporary burials or those widely separated in time, determining the date of many of the burials was not possible with sufficient precision to make this extensive sample suitable for use in the study of population profile at a specific period of time. Attention was therefore transferred to the cemeteries associated with Ismant al-Kharab, ancient Kellis.

Excavations within the settlement of Kellis commenced in 1986 under the direction of this writer. They have shown that it was occupied during the first four centuries of the common era and abandoned either at the end of the fourth century or early in the fifth century. The religious and urban structures are flanked by mud-brick mausolea on the south and north-west, while tombs were cut into the hills beyond on the north-west and in the plain to the north. Excavations have shown that the tombs in the hill cemetery (Kellis 1) can be assigned to the first to third centuries whilst those in the plain (Kellis 2) are late third and fourth centuries. The former display provision for the dead in traditional Egyptian manner, while the latter contain single inhumations, oriented basically east-west and with no grave goods, and can be identified as those of the Christianised community. The study of the latter, with some 800+ individuals represented by skeletal remains largely undisturbed, has provided the bioarchaeologists with an exceptional data set to use in the reconstruction of the life cycles of the inhabitants (Dupras et alii 2022). Integration of the data with that on the lived-in environment at Kellis yields a remarkable, multi-faceted insight into life in the village.

The hill cemetery presents a more complicated picture as the tombs saw multiple use, with earlier interments being disturbed and repositioned by later ones, and sometimes rewrapped. Body treatments are various, from anthropogenic mummification to desiccated skeletons, but nevertheless provide some valuable data on the Roman period population (Dupras et alii 2022). Unlike in Kellis 2, the burials in Kellis 1 were sometimes provisioned with grave goods and the bodies provided with cartonnage covers of different types. The latter form the most extensive assemblage from Dakhleh Oasis and they are the focus of the current volume, the first in the series of reports on the excavations at ancient Kellis.

Here, Carlo Rindi Nuzzolo provides an introduction to Kellis and its cemeteries, presents a catalogue of the cartonnage pieces and detailed analysis. Through a combination of meticulous attention to detail, use of drawing and photography, and a variety of computerised techniques, he produces a typology relating to form, decoration and manufacture, and has been able to identify the characteristics of different groups of craftsmen. The products of some of these artisans have also been found in Kharga. His approach enables pieces with unknown provenance to be assigned to these Kellis groups. The study also provides a valuable contribution to the debate concerning regional variation in the material culture of Egypt.

Colin A. Hope

Acknowledgements

The present book required a substantial amount of travel, in Egypt as well as to international museums and research institutions worldwide, making it particularly difficult to thank all the individuals who helped me along the way.

First and foremost, I would like to thank Colin Hope. It was at his invitation that I came to Melbourne to start a research on the Kellis cartonnage and, prior to that, I could join Monash University’s archaeological mission in Dakhleh Oasis. Colin’s guidance, availability, and engaging discussions greatly contributed to the evolution of the present volume since its inception and assisted me in facing new challenging questions. I am grateful to him for having trusted me with this project, for giving me access to the cartonnage in Dakhleh, and to every resource possibly needed, including a wide range of field and photographic documentation of the Dakhleh Oasis Project.

My deepest gratitude goes to Gillian Bowen. Gillian’s advice on countless aspects of the volume, from methodological approach to Roman-period material and to English prose to ancient textiles, was indeed crucial to its enrichment.

Colin and Gillian’s contribution went far beyond what is possible to sum up in just a few lines. I will always be indebted to them for their continued encouragement and support through the years of my research, and for introducing me to the beautiful Dakhleh Oasis.

A considerable section of the volume is based on a corpus of data gathered during research trips made throughout my candidature. I wish to thank the following scholars, professionals, and colleagues who facilitated my access to objects and archival documentation. Diana Craig Patch, Marsha Hill, Niv Allon, and Helen Evans at the Metropolitan Museum of Art; Katya Barbash at the Brooklyn Museum; Denise Doxey, who was not only kindly available during my research at the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, but she also helped in tracing a private collector’s mummy mask I had previously seen there and which was later moved to Atlanta, Georgia, where I unexpectedly headed at the last moment; there, I was welcomed by Melinda Hartwig, Todd Lamkin, and Stacey Gannon-Wright at the Michael C. Carlos Museum, and I thank them very much for their availability in allowing my research on such a short notice. My thanks to Dave Smart for allowing the study of the cartonnage full body cover at the Cleveland Museum of Art; Eva Kirsch at the Robert V. Fullerton Museum of Art and Archaeology, University of San Bernardino; John Taylor and Marcel Marée at The British Museum; Klaus Finneiser, Jana Helmbold-Doyé, and I-Ting Liao at the Neues Museum, Berlin, and particularly for organising the detailed study of the full body cover of Pa-Nakht; Marie Delassus, Florence Gombert, and Catherine Bridonneau at the Louvre. My sincere thanks to Tine Bagh for the kind availability and for permitting the first-hand study and photography of mummy masks and foot-cases in the storage rooms of the Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek, Copenhagen, and the research through Valdemar Schmidt’s manuscript archive in the Museum’s library.

I am grateful to Christelle Fischer-Bovet, Katharina Stövesand, Bob Bianchi, Éva Liptay, Katalin Kóthay, Rita Lucarelli, Martin Andreas Stadler and Salima Ikram, who kindly provided advice at various stages of my research, or provided copies of their own, unpublished articles, or photographic documentation, for instance from the North Kharga Oasis Survey.

During this research, I profited from discussion with members of the Dakhleh Oasis Project, whether in Egypt or at the DOP conferences held in Cracow (2015) and Prato (2018). I wish to thank Günter Vittmann, Olaf Kaper, and Peter Sheldrick for always being available for advice and a friendly chat. My warmest thanks also to Ashten Warfe, for sharing his expertise multiple times along the years.

I am particularly grateful to Anthony (Tony) Mills, founder and director of the Dakhleh Oasis Project, for allowing my research in Dakhleh, for the congenial atmosphere, and for always welcoming me with a friendly smile. As 2018 marked the 40th anniversary of the Dakhleh Oasis Project, not only had I the privilege to help in the organisation of the Ninth International DOP Conference dedicated to him, but the fact that the conference was held in my hometown of Prato, Italy, made the experience particularly memorable for me.

The regional framework of this research would have been certainly much restricted if it was not for Françoise Dunand, who has been always available to discuss cartonnage production in Kharga during multiple occasions in Melbourne, Paris, and Prato, and who kindly provided extensive photographic documentation of the pieces excavated in the Kharga sites by the Alpha Necropolis Association; I thank her for her collegiality and encouragement. I also wish to acknowledge Gaëlle Tallet, with whom I had profitable discussion, and the preliminary work carried out by Annie Schweitzer on the Kellis cartonnage.

The Dakhleh Oasis Project field documentation used in this research is particularly extensive, as the cartonnage was retrieved over a decade-long excavation. The files available to me were augmented by a number of individuals who kindly fulfilled my requests for additional material, and promptly answered my numerous emails about their work in Dakhleh. My thanks are due to Anthony Mills, Odile Hoogzaad, Richard Mortimer, Kathryn Bard, and John O’Carroll. I am particularly indebted to Peter Sheldrick, who not only went out of his way to scan and digitise for me a large quantity of field notes and photographic slides (some of which are used in Chapter 1.032.6), but who also sent physical copies to me from Canada. I wish to acknowledge the kind help of Rosanne Livingstone, who provided advice and photographic documentation on textiles, footwear, and fabrics from Kellis.

The extensive auction market survey carried out for this book was possible thanks to the availability of a number of international institutions, who allowed my research and managed to make the catalogues available for me. I wish to acknowledge the library staff of the National Gallery of Victoria, State Library of Victoria, The Getty Research Institute, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Musée du Louvre, Los Angeles County Museum of Art, Monash University Library, and The British Museum. I would like to acknowledge the kind help of Susanne Woodhouse, Librarian in charge at the British Museum, who greatly facilitated my work with the auction catalogues.

I wish to extend my sincere thanks to the staff/members and researchers of the Centre for Ancient Cultures and the School of Philosophical, Historical and International Studies, Monash University, for the stimulating discussions and availability. In particular, to Hilary Gopnik, Andrew Connor, Paula Michaels, Seamus O’Hanlon.

This book deals with craftsmanship, draughtsmanship, and iconography; accordingly, it contains a large number of drawings, which required considerable effort and a long time for me to complete. I wish to acknowledge the kind support of Bruce Parr, who has always been available to share his expertise as a draughtsman, often finding the most creative solutions and techniques for me to solve drawing issues in Dakhleh Oasis, and whose work has been of great inspiration for my own drawings as well. I also thank him kindly for his careful assistance over the layout and graphic content of this book.

The completion of this volume was not a milestone achieved on my own, but it was possible also thanks to family members and close friends who supported me in multiple ways during these fulfilling, but also challenging years, whether in Melbourne or in Italy. My family: Alba, Dario, and Pierpaolo. I am particularly grateful to Irene Guidotti for her energy and availability during the years on countless aspects of this research, which she followed with interest from its inception. I thank Andrea for developing the metric scales used in this volume, and Claudia for the support in retrieving hard-to-find books.

This book is dedicated to the memory of my mother, who encouraged me to follow my passion since I started moving my first steps in the field of Egyptology.

Carlo Rindi Nuzzolo

Marie Skłodowska-Curie Post-Doctoral Global Fellow

(Yale University / ISPC-CNR)

Adjunct Research Associate

(Monash University)

Contents

Preface (Colin A. Hope)

Acknowledgements

Introduction

Status Quaestionis: Previous Research and Major Contributors

Kellis and the Dakhleh Oasis

Kharga Oasis

Ptolemaic and Roman Cartonnage from Other Areas

Scope of the Study and Research Questions

Significance of the Research: The Importance of the Kellis Cartonnage Case Study

Methodology

Physical and Technical Analysis

Visual, Conceptual, and Documentary Analysis

Problems of Methodology

Volume Outline

Chapter 1. The Kellis Cartonnage: Archaeological Context

Description of the Site

The Kellis 1 Cemetery: Archaeological Investigation

The Dakhleh Oasis Project Documentation: Sources for the Kellis 1 Cemetery

The Kellis Field Notes

The Kellis Field Notes by Edwin Brock

The Kellis Field Notes by Peter Sheldrick

The Kellis Cemetery Notes

The Object and Inventory Lists

The Dakhleh Oasis Project Survey Field Notes

The Kellis 1 Cemetery: Description and Previous Research

Cartonnage from the Kellis 1 Cemetery: The Tomb Context

Tomb 1

Tomb 2

Tomb 3

Tomb 4

Tomb 5

Tomb 6

Tomb 7

Tomb 8

Tomb 10

Tomb 13

Tomb 16

Tomb 17

Tomb 18

Tomb 19

Tomb 20

Tomb 21

Tomb 22

Tomb 25

Tomb 26

Cartonnage from the North Tomb Group

Cartonnage from Other Sites in Dakhleh Oasis

The Kellis Cartonnage

Chapter 2. Typology and Iconography of the Kellis Cartonnage

Mummy Masks

Group I: Mummy Masks with Register-Type Decoration in Egyptian Tradition

Face

Wreath

Forehead

Front Wig Lappets

Lower Register of the Chest Cover

Collar

Side Registers

Shoulder (Transitional Area)

Back

Group II: Mummy Masks Depicting Attire

Face

Hair

Wreath

Garments

Shawl

Jewellery

Arms and Hands

Back

Lower Register of Chest Cover

Typological Classification

Type A

Type B

Type C

Type D

Type E

Foot-Cases

Definition of the Decorative Areas

The Upper Side

The Lateral Faces

The Bottom Side

The Toe Cap Area

Upper Side: Decorative Scheme

The Transitional Frieze

Lateral Faces: Decorative Scheme

Bottom Side: Decorative Scheme

Bottom Side: Typological Classification

Toe Cap Area

Full Body Covers

General Construction and Iconography

Top Side

Wreaths and Jewellery

Lateral Faces (Right and Left Side)

Back of the Head

Bottom Side of the Feet Area

Transitional Frieze

Cartonnage from Other Areas of Dakhleh

The Kellis Cartonnage: Overview

Chapter 3. The Kellis Craftsmen

The Kellis Craftsmen

Identification Process

The Craftsmen Groups

Craftsmen Group A

Distribution

Type of Material

Iconography, Composition and Draughtsmanship

Colour Palette

Additional Manufacturing Details

Craftsmen Group B

Distribution

Type of Material

Iconography, Composition and Draughtsmanship

Colour Palette

Additional Manufacturing Details

Craftsmen Group C

Distribution

Type of Material

Iconography, Composition and Draughtsmanship

Colour Palette

Additional Manufacturing Details

Craftsmen Group D

Distribution

Type of Material

Iconography, Composition and Draughtsmanship

Colour Palette

Craftsmen Group E

Distribution

Type of Material

Iconography, Composition and Draughtsmanship

Colour Palette

Minor Variation F

Distribution

Type of Material

Iconography, Composition and Draughtsmanship

Colour Palette

Additional Manufacturing Details

Minor Variation G

Distribution

Type of Material

Iconography, Composition and Draughtsmanship

Colour Palette

Minor Variation H

Distribution

Type of Material

Iconography, Composition and Draughtsmanship

Colour Palette

Minor Variation I

Distribution

Type of Material

Iconography, Composition and Draughtsmanship

Colour Palette

The Craftsmen and Cartonnage Production at Kellis

Further Considerations on Craftsmanship Techniques at Kellis

Chapter 4. Cartonnage from Kharga Oasis

’Ain el-Labakha

Inv. AL 3443 (Mummy Mask)

Inv. AL 3444 (Foot-Case)

Inv. AL 3445 and AL 3446 (Full Body Covers)

Inv. NKOS T 44 (Foot-Case Fragment no. 5)

Inv. NKOS T 44 (Foot-Case Fragment no. 4)

’Ain el-Dabashiya

Inv. AD 3591 (Mummy Mask)

Inv. AD 96.01 (Mummy Cartonnage Set)

El-Deir

Inv. ED N2.04 (Foot-Case Fragments)

Inv. ED N9.01 and N9.01sfce (Full Body Cover Fragment)

Inv. ED N13.10 and N13.11 (Full Body Cover Fragments)

Inv. ED N13.12 (Mummy Mask Fragment)

Inv. ED E12.0.01 (Mummy Mask Fragment)

Inv. ED E12.04 and E45sfce.15 (Mummy Mask Fragments)

Inv. ED E15.1.01 (Foot-Case and Mask Fragments)

Inv. ED E15.1.02 (Foot-Case Fragments)

Inv. ED E37.04 (Mummy Mask Fragments)

Dush

Inv. DU T5, T6, T7 and T8 (Full Body Covers)

Inv. DU T75 (Foot-Case Fragment)

The Craftsmen between Two Oases

The Artisans of CGA: Craftsmanship between Dakhleh and Kharga

Artisans and Regionalism: Areas of Trade Interest between Dakhleh and Kharga

Additional Considerations on the Dakhleh-Kharga Funerary Market

Chapter 5. Cartonnage from the Art Market, in Museums and Private Collections

Cartonnage on the Art Market

Document 1: Christie’s, London, 8 April 1998, lot 147 (Mummy Mask)

Document 2: Galerie Samarcande, Paris, 7–8 October 1996, lot (Mummy Mask and Foot-Case)

Document 3: Sotheby’s, London, 2 July 1996, lot 64 (Mummy Mask)

Document 4: Bonhams, London, 24 June 1998, lot 374 (Mummy Mask)

Document 5: Sotheby’s, New York, 13 June 2002, lot 229 (Mummy Mask Fragment)

Document 6: Arte Primitivo, New York, October 2008, lot (Mummy Mask Fragment)

Document 7: Christie’s, London, 25 November 1997, lot (Mummy Mask)

Document 8: Bonhams, London, 3 April 2014, lot 186 (Foot-Case)

Document 9: Sadigh Gallery, October 2013, lot 23862 (Foot-Case Fragment)

Document 10: Sadigh Gallery, October 2013, lot 23863 (Mummy Mask Fragment)

Cartonnage in Museums and Private Collections

Atlanta, Michael C. Carlos Museum, inv. 2013.43.8 (Mummy Mask)

Philadelphia, University of Pennsylvania, L-55-289 (Mummy Mask)

Copenhagen, Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek, AEIN 297 (Mummy Mask)

Identifying Unprovenanced Cartonnage from Kellis

Chapter 6. Conclusions

Challenges for Research, Cultural Heritage Preservation, and Future Directions for Study

The Kellis Cartonnage: Gates to Eternity

Bibliography

List of Friezes

Plates

Appendix: Catalogue of Objects

Structure of the Catalogue

K1.1.01

K1.1.02

K1.1.03

K1.1.04

K1.1.05

K1.1.06

K1.1.07

K1.3.01

K1.4.01

K1.5.01

K1.5.02

K1.6.01

K1.6.02

K1.7.01

K1.7.02

K1.7.03

K1.8.01

K1.8.02

K1.10.01

K1.10.02

K1.10.03

K1.10.04

K1.10.05

K1.13.01

K1.13.02

K1.13.03

K1.13.04

K1.16.01

K1.16.02

K1.16.03

K1.16.04

K1.16.05

K1.16.06

K1.16.07

K1.16.08

K1.17.01

K1.18.01

K1.18.02

K1.18.03

K1.18.04

K1.18.05

K1.18.06

K1.18.07

K1.18.08

K1.18.09

K1.18.10

K1.19.01

K1.19.02

K1.19.03

K1.19.04

K1.20.01

K1.20.02

K1.20.03

K1.20.04

K1.20.05

K1.20.06

K1.20.07

K1.21.01

K1.21.02

K1.21.03

K1.21.04

K1.21.05

K1.21.06

K1.21.07

K1.21.08

K1.21.09

K1.21.10

K1.21.11

K1.22.01

K1.22.02

K1.22.03

K1.25.01

K1.25.02

K1.25.03

K1.25.04

K1.25.05

K1.25.06

K1.25.07

NT.5.01

NT.16.01

The Dakhleh Oasis Project Monographs

Introduction

The oases of the Western Egyptian Desert, and Dakhleh in particular, represent an ideal area in which to investigate ancient Egyptian burial customs during the Roman period (Figure 1). First, from a geographical standpoint, these are situated on the fringe of Egypt; this provides an interesting opportunity to explore degrees of permanence and change in Egyptian funerary traditions in areas other than the Nile valley and the Delta. Second, from a chronological perspective, the Ptolemaic and Roman periods constitute moments of great change in the burial customs and studies further addressing these aspects are still needed.

The village of ancient Kellis (modern Ismant alKharab, Dakhleh Oasis) offers an optimal case study to examine how the indigenous traditions and religious beliefs survived or were transformed. Occupation at Kellis is currently attested from the first century CE until the closing years of the fourth century when the village was abandoned (Hope 2001, 43–59; most recently Hope and Bowen 2022, 391). There is some evidence of activity in the first century BCE, which includes a few ceramics (Gill 2016, 411, 504), a Ptolemaic coin and a mud loom weight, dated by Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS) radiocarbon analysis to ca. 40 BCE (personal communication, C. A. Hope, October 2018).

The village spanned a crucial transitionary time in history: conversion by the residents from the traditional religion to Christianity. This is attested by three churches at the site, textual material, the gradual abandonment of the indigenous Temple of Tutu (Bowen 2002a, 65–85; Hope and Bowen 2022, 391) and a change in burial practices, together with the development of a new cemetery, separate from that used by the residents in the previous centuries (Birrell 1999; Bowen 2003b, 167–182).

Burial customs played a major role in ancient Egyptian culture, reflecting both the social status of the deceased as well as the funerary beliefs of the area and are, therefore, an important source of data that can contribute to the investigation of ancient Egyptian traditions. From the Ptolemaic period onwards, non-Egyptian influences were incorporated into the traditional Egyptian mummification rituals (Dunand 1995; 1998, 131–132; 1999, 124; 2004, 576–577; Chauveau 2000, 136–137) and this impacted on the production of a variety of funerary materials such as cartonnage mummy masks, foot-cases, shrouds, and full body covers that can be characterised by the co-existence of traditional Egyptian imagery and Hellenic-Roman features (Castiglione 1961; Whitehouse 1998). Thus, the funerary production of this period is as much an expression of cultural interactions as the diversity in traditions (Riggs 2002; 2005; 2010; Venit 2016). As the latter differed between areas, and often even from site to site, Egyptological scholarship is leaning strongly towards regional approaches rather than interpreting the culture as homogeneous.

In line with this approach, in this volume I undertake a detailed analysis of the entire corpus of cartonnage found at Kellis, mainly in the Kellis 1 cemetery. These objects, which include masks, foot-cases, and full body covers, are part of the burial accoutrements of the wealthier residents of the village and constitute one of the principal sources for the investigation of the funerary customs of the area. This corpus enables me to investigate whether the craftsmen who manufactured the Kellis material used certain local features, such as constructional methods, decorative programmes, specific draughtsmanship, and colour patterns in the cartonnage production. My research also looks at these features beyond Dakhleh, and specifically to the neighbouring oasis of Kharga, to establish whether there was a common oases approach in the cartonnage manufacturing.

The decoration of cartonnage was not only an expression of the social status of the deceased and the religious creeds of the area, but it was greatly influenced by the local artistry as well. In relation to this, I also investigate the possible presence of one, or more, groups of craftsmen in charge of manufacturing the funerary artefacts from Kellis, as well as any links with craft production in Kharga to determine whether the same craftsmen were responsible for the use and distribution of a specific regional variation in the cartonnage production. The present volume stems from my PhD dissertation, The Cartonnage from Kellis. A Study in Regionalism and Craftsmanship (Rindi Nuzzolo 2019), defended at Monash University in 2019 under the supervision of Colin A. Hope and Gillian E. Bowen.

Figure 1 Map of Egypt indicating the location of Dakhleh Oasis.

Figure 2 Map illustrating the Dakhleh-Kharga region. The position of Kellis (Ismant al-Kharab) indicated.

Status Quaestionis: Previous Research and Major Contributors

Egyptological scholarship concerning funerary furniture from the Third Intermediate Period onwards has focussed increasingly upon regional studies. Coffins (for instance Niwiński 1988; Taylor 1989; 2003; 2009; Elias 1996; Brech 2008; Liptay 2011; 2018; Kόthay 2012; Schreiber 2012; Stövesand 2015; 2018; forthcoming), stelae (El-‘Al et alii 1985; Mccleary 1986; Abdalla 1992; Wagner 1999), cartonnage (see below), portrait mummies (Parlasca 1966; Corcoran 1995a; Borg 1996, especially 183–190; Walker and Bierbrier 1997; Doxiadis 2000; Walker 2000; Parlasca and Frenz 2003; Gehad et alii 2022), and other types of funerary artefacts such as Ptah-Sokar-Osiris figures or shabti boxes (see for instance Rindi Nuzzolo 2013; 2014; 2017a; Tillier 2016) have all been the subject of investigations and reexaminations aimed at emphasising regional variations. Nevertheless, apart from a number of important studies and the publication of the discovery of the so-called Valley of the Golden Mummies (Hawass 2000), cartonnage production in the oases of Egypt is still in need of further examination, particularly when considering the issue of regionalism.

Kellis and the Dakhleh Oasis

Relevant literature on the cartonnage from Kellis is scarce, as the entire corpus still required a thorough investigation. Until the beginning of this research, the only publication relating to the Kellis cartonnage was a paper by Annie Schweitzer (2002). Schweitzer had the opportunity to study a substantial part of the cartonnage from the Kellis 1 cemetery during her stay in the oasis, but due to the preliminary nature of her study not all the material was examined, including that from the North Tomb area. Nevertheless, the publication provided a general summary and brief descriptions of the most relevant pieces from a number of the Kellis tombs. Schweitzer’s publication and her primary sorting of the fragments have indeed functioned as a springboard and source of inspiration for the present research.

Additional work on the cartonnage was undertaken by Yvonne Pecher for her unpublished MA thesis completed at Monash University in 2013–14. Pecher’s study focussed mainly on the issue of identity and therefore the thesis did not investigate topics such as regional variation, iconography, decorative details and craftsmanship, which the present research specifically seeks to address.

More generally, select pieces of the Kellis cartonnage were briefly mentioned by Michael Birrell (1999, 35–38), one of the archaeologists to excavate the site, in his general overview of the Kellis 1 cemetery. Birrell (1999, 31–33) also produced a preliminary typology of the tombs excavated at the time. Most recently, additional pieces were mentioned in a publication by Colin Hope (2014), which dealt with Roman period burial customs in the cemetery. These have been reviewed again recently (Hope et alii 2022, 307–342). Cartonnage pieces have also been discovered at other sites within Dakhleh such as, for instance, ‘Ain Tirghi, Bir al-Shaghala, and ‘Ain el-Azizi, although some of these have not been included in the following discussion.

The documentation on the ‘Ain Tirghi cartonnage, excavated in the 1980s (Frey 1986; most recently Hope 2018) indicated that it pre-dated the Graeco-Roman Period, and thus lay outside the scope of the present study. Furthermore, there is not enough documentation for cartonnage fragments which are known to have been detected around looted sites in the vicinity of Kellis, including ‘Ain el-Azizi.

A few cartonnage fragments were discovered by members of the Dakhleh Oasis Project during the initial survey of 1978–1980. These were recorded, sketched, inventoried, and have been included in the following discussion. Fragmentary examples from Bir al-Shaghala are briefly mentioned throughout this work as they bear a deep resemblance to the Kellis production and were presumably made by the same craftsmen groups (see Chapters 1–3). Part of a cartonnage face from that site was retrieved during SCA excavations directed by Magdi Ibrahim in August 2017, and additional examples of masks and foot-cases have been discovered in one of the pyramidal structure tombs (Bashendi 2014; Ashour et alii 2020).

Kharga Oasis

A substantial amount of cartonnage from Kharga is available in published excavation reports; this provides the chance to address the issue of regionalism in the production of funerary furniture by comparing it with material found at Kellis. Of particular importance are the sites of El-Deir (Dunand 2004; Dunand et alii 2005; 2012a; 2012b; 2015; Dunand and Lichtenberg 2005; 2008a; Tallet 2014), Dush (Dunand 1982; Dunand et alii 1992; 1998; 2005), ‘Ain el-Dabashiya (Dunand et alii 2012c), and ‘Ain el-Labakha (Dunand et alii 2000; Ibrahim et alii 2008), all of which yielded an exceptional amount of cartonnage from their extensive necropoleis. The variety in the production, the presence of multiple ateliers (Dunand 1998, 128; Tallet 2014), and its proximity to Dakhleh Oasis could suggest a similar scenario for Kellis. This will be examined in Chapter 3.

Christina Riggs drew attention to material originating from Kharga Oasis in her discussion of regional cartonnage production in The Beautiful Burial in Roman Egypt (2005). The author mentions five specific cartonnage coffins that she attributed to the Kharga Oasis coffin group (Riggs 2005, 48). These coffins, Riggs argues (2005, 49), ‘share peculiarities of decorative design, drawing, and coloration which clearly indicate that they were painted by the same workshop, or even by a single artist’.

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