Encyclopedia of Native American Religions, Third Edition

By Arlene Hirschfelder and Paulette Molin

Praise for the previous edition:

"This encyclopedia...allows the student to realize the richness and diversity of the Native American beliefs to the forefront of the world religions...Highly Recommended."—Book Report 

"...recommended for public library, school, and undergraduate reference collections."—Booklist 

"...the wealth of information...make this useful for both public and academic libraries."—Library Journal

Despite a long history of suppression by governments and missionaries, Native American beliefs have endured as dignified, profound, viable, and richly faceted religions. Encyclopedia of Native American Religions, Third Edition is the go-to reference for the general reader that explores this fascinating subject.

More than 1,200 cross-referenced entries describe traditional beliefs and worship practices, the consequences of contact with Europeans and other Americans, and the forms Native American religions take today. 

Coverage includes:

• Biographies of figures such as Thomas Stillday Jr., an Ojibway and the first Indian chaplain in the Minnesota State Legislature
• Court cases concerning prisoners' religious rights
• National and state legislation, such as the Native American Church Bill and the Religious Freedom Restoration Act
• Religious rights in the military
• Sacred sites, such as Snoqualmie Falls, and the sacred use of tobacco
• Tribal court cases involving the participation of non-Indians in Native American religious ceremonies, such as the Sun Dance.

• Language: English
• Publisher: Facts On File
• Release date: Oct 1, 2019
• ISBN: 9781438182940

Book preview

title

Encyclopedia of Native American Religions, Third Edition

Copyright © 2019 by Arlene Hirschfelder and Paulette Molin

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage or retrieval systems, without permission in writing from the publisher. For more information, contact:

Facts On File

An imprint of Infobase

132 West 31st Street

New York NY 10001

ISBN 978-1-4381-8294-0

You can find Facts On File on the World Wide Web

at http://www.infobase.com

Contents

Entries

Abishabis

Acceptance of the Drum Ceremony

Acorn Feast

Act for the Preservation of American Antiquities

adoption string

Afraid-of-Bears

air spirit

All-Smoking Ceremony

Allis, Samuel, Jr.

Allouez, Claude Jean

Altham, John

Amantacha

American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions (ABCFM)

American Indian Mission Association

American Indian Religious Freedom Act

American Indian Religious Freedom Act Amendments

American Indian Religious Freedom Coalition

American Indian Ritual Object Repatriation Foundation

Anawangmani, Simon

Anderson, George

animal dances

Anointing the Sacred Pole Ceremony

Apache ceremonialism

Apache power concepts

Apess, William

Arch, John

Archaeological Resources Protection Act of 1979

Arthur, Mark K.

Aspenquid

Athabascan ceremonialism

Aubery, Joseph

Aupaumut, Hendrick

Badger-Two Medicine

Badoni v. Higginson

Bald and Golden Eagles Protection Act

Baraga, Frederic

Barnley, George

Basket Dance

bathing

Battey, Thomas

Bean Ceremony

Bean, George Washington

Bear Butte

Bear ceremonialism

Bear Dance (California)

Bear Dance (Ute)

bear doctor

Bear Ribs v. Grossman

Bear Society (Iroquois)

Bear Society (Keresan Pueblos)

Bear-Track

Bearshirt v. the Queen

beast gods

Bedell, Harriet M.

Begging Dance

Belvin, B. Frank

Bemo, John

Benavidas, Alonso de

berdache

Berry Festival

Berryman, Jerome Causin

Bi'anki

Biard, Pierre

Bible translations

Big Day, William

Big Head Religion

Big Heads

Big House Ceremony

Big Mountain

Big Road, Mark

Billie, Josie

Black Bear, Harry

Black Coyote

Black Dancers

black drink

Black Elk

Black Elk, Wallace Howard

Black Fox

Black Hairy Dog

Black Legs Dance

Black Road

Black-Tailed Deer Dance

Blackburn, Gideon

blackening

Blackfeet Nation Cultural and Spiritual Wilderness Protection Act

Bladder Festival

Blanchet, Francis Norbert

Blessing Way

Blowsnake, Sam

Blue Bird, James

Blue Lake

Board of Foreign Missions (BFM) of the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America (PCUSA)

Bole-Maru Religion

Bompas, William C.

Bonney, Mary Lucinda

Bouchard, James

Boudinot, Elias

Boutwell, William T.

Bow Priesthood

Bowen v. Roy

bowl game

Box Elder

Brainerd, David

Bray, Thomas

Bread Dance

breathing

Brébeuf, Jean de

Breck, James Lloyd

Brown, Amelia

Brunson, Alfred

Budd, Henry

Buffalo Calf Pipe

Buffalo Ceremony

Buffalo Dance (Hopi)

Buffalo Dance (Shawnee)

Buffalo Society

Bull Lodge

Bureau of Catholic Indian Missions

burial ground desecration

burial legislation

Bush Dance

Bushy Heads

Bushyhead, Jesse

busk

Butler, Elizur

Butrick, Daniel Sabin

Byhan, Gottlieb

Byington, Cyrus

cacique

California mission system

Campanius, Johan

Campos, Agustín de

Caribou Festival

Carigouan

Carr, John H.

Case, William

Cataldo, Joseph

Catch-the-Stone Ceremony

Catches, Peter

Celilo Falls

Cementation Festival

ceremonial labor

ceremonial relay race

ceremonial runner

ceremonial running and games

ceremonial societies

ceremonial sponsorship

Changing Woman

chanters for the dead

Chapayeka masks

Chapman, Epaphras

Charcoal

Chaumonot, Pierre-Joseph-Marie

Checote, Samuel

Chelkona

Cherokee religious revival

chief's convention

Chihwatenha

Chimney Rock

Chinigchinix religion

Chips, Godfrey

Chiwat, Billy

Choni

Christensen, Christian Lingo

Church Missionary Society

Circular No. 2970

City of Boerne v. P. F. Flores

clans

Clark, John

Clay, Jesse

cleansing ceremony

Cloud Dance

clown

Coal Bear

Cockenoe

Cockran, William

Code of Handsome Lake

Collins, Mary C.

Collison, William Henry

Comanche Dance

Compere, Lee

condolence cane

Condolence Ceremony

Confession Dance

confession rite

Cook, Charles Smith

Cook, Washington N.

Coolidge, Sherman

copper

Copway, George

Corn Dance

corn ear

corn groups

Corn Maidens

Corn Mother

Corn Sprouting Ceremony

cornmeal

cosmic pillar

Coso Hot Springs

Courts of Indian Offenses

Cowley, Abraham

Cranberry Day

Crawford, Charles Renville

Crazy Mule

creation accounts

creators in American Indian mythology

Crosby, Thomas

Crow-Water Society

cry house

Cunningham, Edward

curing ceremonials (Apache)

curing ceremonials (Keresan)

curing societies

Curly Headed Doctor

Cusick, Albert

Custalow, Otha Thomas

Dailey, Truman

Dakota Native Missionary Society

Dalton, Matthew William

Dance for the Spirits of the Dead

dance, religious

dancing societies

Daniel, Antoine

Dark Dance

Da'tekan

Davis, Gloria Ann

Davis, John

Davis, Ola Cassadore

De Smet, Pierre-Jean

deacon

death feast

deer and antelope ceremonies

Deer Dance

deer dancer

Deere, Phillip

Deganawida

Deloria, Philip

Deloria, Vine, Sr.

diagnostician

Dick, Mike

disease

ditch-cleaning ceremonies

Dla'upac

Doctor Charley

Doctor George

Doctor's Dance

Domenico

Dorsey, James Owen

Dowd, Donny

Downing, Lewis

Dream Dance

dream-guessing rite

dreamers

dreams

Drexel, Katherine

Druillettes, Gabriel

drum

Drum Dance

Drum Religion

Duchesne, Rose Philippine

Dukes, Joseph

Dunbar, John

Duncan, William

Eagle Ceremony

Eagle Dance (Iroquois)

Eagle Dance (Pueblo)

eagle feather distribution

Eagle Society

Earth Lodge religion

Easter

Eastman, John

Edwards, Jonathan

Eells, Cushing

Eells, Myron

Egede, Hans Povelsen

Egede, Povl

Ehnamani

Eliot Bible

Eliot, John

Elk Hair

Ely, Edmund F.

Employment Division, Department of Human Resources of Oregon, et al. v. Smith et al.

Endangered Species Act

Enemy Way

Enmegahbowh

Epp, Jacob B.

Erect Horns

Escalante, Francisco de

Ettwein, John

Evans, James

Evarts, Jeremiah

Evil Way

Exalting Bush Feast

Executive Order 13007

faces of the forest

faithkeeper

False Face Ceremony

False Face Society

family condolence rite

fasting

Father Dance

Faw Faw, William

feast day

Feast for the Mourners

Feast to the Dead (Alaska Inuit and Aleut)

Feast to the Dead (Huron)

Feast to the Dead (Iroquois)

feasts

feather

Feather Dance (Iroquois)

Feather Dance (Kiowa)

Feather Dance, overview

Feather religion

Feathered Pipe

fetish

Fiddler, Adam

Fiddler, Jack

Fiddler, Joseph

Finger

Finley, James

Fire Dance

Fire Wolf, John

firekeeper

first-catch ceremonies

first-food observances

First New Moon of Spring Festival

first-salmon rites

Fish, Joseph

Flat Pipe

Flèché, Jesse

Fleming, John

flowers

Flute Ceremony

Folsom, Willis F.

Fools Crow, Frank

Fools Crow v. Gullet

Fool's Dance Society

Foreman, Stephen

formula

Fortunate Eagle, Adam

Foundation of Life

four sacred ceremonies

four sacred persons

Fox, Marvin

Francis, Josiah

Frank v. Alaska

Frazier, Francis

Frazier, Francis Philip

Freeman, Bernardus

Frey, Jacob Benjamin

Gable Mountain

Gagewin

Gahuni

Galaxy Society

Gandeactena, Catherine

Garrioch, Alfred Campbell

George, Jimmy

George, Norman

Germinator

ghost

Ghost Dance, 1870

Ghost Dance, 1890

Ghost Dance Hand Game

Ghost Keeping Ceremony

ghost (Navajo)

girl's puberty rite

Giveaway Ceremony and Dance

Giveaway Dance

Gluskap

Godden, William J.

going to water

Golden Eagle v. Deputy Sheriff Johnson

Goodbird, Edward

Goodeagle, Mrs.

Gookin, Daniel

Goose

Goose Dance

Gordon, Philip B.

Gourd Dance

Grant's Peace Policy

Grass Dance, overview

Grass Dance (Shoshone)

Gray, Arthur, Jr.

Gray, William Crane

great houses

Great New Moon Feast

Green Corn

Green Corn Ceremony

Green Corn Dance

Green Corn Feast

Green, Joe

Gregorio, Juan

Grey Cloud, David

Griffin, Victor

Grube, Bernhard Adam

guardian spirit

Guyart, Marie

Habegger, Alfred

Haile, Berard

hair-cutting ceremony

Hako Ceremony

Hall, Charles L.

Hall, Sherman

Hamatsa Dance

Hamblin, Jacob

Hanbleceya

hand trembler

Handsome Lake

Handsome Lake religion

Hano ceremonialism

Hare, William Hobart

Harvest Dance

Harvest Festival

harvest festival for crops

Hascall, John

Haskell, Thales Hastings

Hatch, Ira

Hatch v. Goerke

Haven, Jens

Hawley, Gideon

Hayden, Bridget

headmen

Heckewelder, John

He'dewachi Ceremony

Hennepin, Louis

Hensley, Albert

Hesi Ceremony

heyoka

Heyoka Ceremony

Hiacoomes

Hill, Cornelius

Hill, Emily

Hinman, Samuel D.

Hoag, Enoch

hogan

holiness rite

Holy Dance

Holy Dance, Robert

Holy People

Holy Way Ceremonies

Holy Wind

Homaldo

Hopi ceremonialism

Hopi dances

Hoppel, Jimmy Jack

Horden, John

Horn Chips

Horton, Azariah

house-blessing rite

Hubbard, Jeremiah

Hunka ceremony

Hunt, Jake

Hunter, James

Hunter's Association

hunting ceremonials

Hunting Dance

Hunting Horse

hunting rituals

Hununwe

Hurlburt, Thomas

Husk Face Society

huya aniya

I'n-Lon-Schka

Indian Inmates of Nebraska Penitentiary v. Grammer

Indian Shaker Religion

initiation ceremonies (Pueblo)

initiation ceremony (Cocopa)

Introduction to the Dance Ceremony

Inupiat Community v. United States

Iroquois calendrical ceremonies

Iroquois ceremonialism

Iruska

Irvin, Samuel M.

Itiwana

Jack and Charlie v. R.

Jackson, Henry

Jackson, Sheldon

Jacobs, Peter

Jakalunus

Jogues, Isaac

Johnson, Thomas

Johnson, William (missionary)

Joijoi

Jones, Daniel W.

Jones, David Thomas

Jones, Evan

Jones, Florence

Jones, John Buttrick

Jones, Peter

Journeycake, Charles

Jump Dance

Jumper, John

Jumpin' Dance (Confederated Salish-Kootenai)

Jumping Dance (Cree)

June Meeting

kachina

kachina ceremonies

kachina dances

kachina dolls

Kachina Society

Kachina Society initiation

Kaneeda

Kansas Unmarked Burial Sites Preservation Act

karigi

Kauxuma Nupika

keeper

Keepers of the Treasures

Kenekuk

Keresan priesthoods

Keresan pueblos

Kettle Dance

Kicking Bear

kickstick race

Kimball, Andrew

Kingsbury, Cyrus

Kino, Eusebio Francisco

Kirby, Albert

Kirby, William West

Kirkland, Samuel

kiva

Klah, Hosteen

Kliewer, Henry J.

Kohlmeister, Benjamin Gottlieb

koko

Kolhu/wala-wa

Konti

Konti vo'o

Kootenai Falls

koshare

Koshiway, Johnathan

Kotiakan

koyemshi

Kuksu religion

Kushuwe, Jack

Kwerana Society

La Mere, Oliver

Lacombe, Albert

lacrosse

Lafitau, Joseph François

Lakon Society

Lalemant, Jerome

Lame Bill

Lame Deer, John

Lancaster, Ben

Laroche Daillon, Joseph de

Larush, Sister M. Sirilla

Lawyer, Archie B.

Le Moyne, Simon

LeCaron, Joseph

LeClercq, Christien

Lee, George P.

Lee, Jason

LeJeune, Paul

Life Way Ceremony

Lightning Ceremony

Lilley, John

Limpy, Josephine Head Swift

Linscheid, Gustav A.

Lishwailait

Little Corn Ceremony

Little Coyote, Joe

Little People

Little People Society

little rite

Little Water Society

Lobert

Lofty Wanderer

Lone Bear, Sam

Lonewolf, Delos Knowles

Long Horn

long-life ceremony

Long, Sam

Long, Will West

longhouse

Longhouse Religion

longhouse wampum

Looking Horse, Arval

Lookout, Fred

Loughridge, Robert McGill

Lowry, Henry H.

Luls

Lyng, Secretary of Agriculture, et al. v. Northwest Indian Cemetery Protective Association et al.

MacLean, John

Maheo

Main Poc

Man Eater

Manitohkan

Maple Festival

Maraw Society

Marine Mammal Protection Act

Marksman, Peter

Marquette, Jacques

Masau'u

Mashunkashay, Ben

mask

Mason, Sophia Thomas

Mason, William

Masquerade Festival

masquettes

Massaum Ceremony

Mat Faar Tiigundra

Matachin Dance

Mathias, Baptiste

Mato Tipila

Mayhew, Experience

Mayhew, Thomas, Jr.

Mayhew, Thomas, Sr.

Mazakutemani, Paul

McBeth, Susan Law

McCoy, Isaac

McDougall, George Millward

McDougall, John

McLeod, Dickson C.

McMurray, William

medeulin

medicine bag

medicine bundle (Navajo)

medicine bundle, overview

Medicine Elk, James

medicine man/woman

Medicine Men's Association

medicine societies (Iroquois)

medicine societies (Keresan)

Medicine Wheel

medicines

Meeker, Jotham

Megapolensis, Johannes

Membertou

memorial potlatch

mescal bean ceremony

Messenger Feast

Methvin, John Jasper

Mexican v. Circle Bear

Mexistet

Midewiwin

Midwinter Ceremony

Migratory Bird Treaty Act

Miguelito

Mink, John

Mis-Quona-Queb

Misinghalikun

Missouri River

Mistapeo

Mitchell, Frank

Mo-Keen, Loki

Modesto, Ruby

moiety

Molawia

Mon-'hin-thin-ge

Monoha

moon spirit

Moore, William Luther

Morgan, Jacob

Morse, Jedediah

mortuary cycle

mortuary observances

mortuary pole

Mosquito Dance

Mount Adams

Mount Graham

Mount Shasta

Mountain Spirit Dancers

mountain spirits

Mountain Wolf Woman

mourning anniversary ceremony

mourning ceremony (Cocopa)

mourning ceremony (Diegueño)

mourning ceremony (Havasupai)

mourning observances

Moyaone

Muhte

Murdock, Ann Harding

Murrow, Joseph Samuel

Mustache, James

nachi

Nakaidoklini

name-soul

name-taking ceremonies

naming practices

Napeshnee, Joseph

National Association of Native Religions (NANR)

National Historic Preservation Act Amendments of 1992

National Museum of the American Indian Act

National Native American Prisoners Rights Advocacy Coalition (NNAPRAC)

Native American Church

Native American Church of New York v. United States

Native American Church v. Navajo Tribal Council

Native American Cultural Protection and Free Exercise of Religion Act of 1994

Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA)

Native American Historical, Cultural and Sacred Sites Act

Navajo ceremonialism

Navitcu

Neck, Medicine

Neely, Richard

Negabamet, Noël

Negahnquet, Albert

Neolin

Nesutan

Neufeld, Henry T.

New Fire Ceremony (Hopi)

New Fire Ceremony (Zuni)

New Rider v. Board of Education

Nielsen, Niels Laurids

Night Way Ceremony

Niman Kachina Ceremony

Nisbet, James

Noaha-vose

Norelputus

Nuakin

O-giwi-manse-win

Oakchiah

Oakerhater, David Pendleton

Occum, Samson

offerings

Okipa

Olmsted, Jared

O'Meara, Frederick Augustus

Onasakenrat, Joseph

One Horn Society

Oneida Indian Nation of New York v. Clark

Ookah Dance

Osunkhirhine, Pierre Paul

O'Toole

Otter Society

Our Grandmother, the Creator

Our Life Supporter Dances

Owaqlt Society

Owl, W. David

Pa'-iñgya

Pachavu

Pahko

pains

painted on

Palmer, Marcus

Palou, Francisco

Papounhan

Parker, Quanah

Pasco Sam

Pascola dancer

Passing of the Drum Ceremony

Patheske

Paupanakiss, Edward

Pautiwa

Peach Dance

Peck, Edmund James

Pekwin

Pelotte, Donald E.

People v. Foster Alphonse Red Elk

People v. Woody

Perryman, James

Perryman, Joseph Moses

Perryman, Thomas Ward

person

personal chant

Petter, Bertha Elise Kinsinger

Petter, Rodolphe Charles

peyote

Peyote and Pentagon Rule

Peyote Religion

Peyote Way Church of God, Inc. v. Smith

peyotism opposition

Picofa Ceremony

Pierce, William Henry

Pierson, Abraham

Pigarouich, Etienne

Pikuni Traditionalists Association

Pinapuyuset

Pinero

pipestone

Pit-River Charley

Pitezel, John H.

Pixley, Benton

Plenty Wolf, George

Po-ha-gum

Point, Nicolas

pollen in American Indian mythology

pom pom

Pond, Samuel W. and Gideon

Ponziglione, Paul M.

Poor Coyote

Poor Man, Mercy

Popé

Porcupine

Porcupine Standing Sideways

Poshayanki

Post, Christian Frederick

Postiyu

potlatch

Potlatch Law

Powamu Ceremony

Powell, Peter John

power concepts

Prayer Dance

prayerstick

prayerstick festival

Praying Indians

preacher

Preliminary Green Corn Feast

Preparation of Offering Cloths

Pretty-Shield

Priber, Christian

Price, Pete

Prophet Dance

public appropriation of Native American cultural, religious, and intellectual property

Puck Hyah Toot

Pueblo ceremonialism

Pueblo spirits

purification rites

putting on moccasins

Quapaw, John

Quinney, John

Quinton, Amelia Stone

rabbit hunts

Ragueneau, Paul

Rain Ceremonial

rain house

rain priesthoods

Rainbow Natural Bridge

Rale, Sebastien

Rand, Silas Tertius

Raspberry Ceremony

rattle

Rave, John

Red Fish

Red Hat, Edward

Red Hawk

Red Nest, William

Red Weasel

Redsky, James, Sr.

Reflecting Man, John

Regina v. Machekequonabe

Reinert v. Haas

Religious Freedom Restoration Act (RFRA)

remaking rite

Renville, Isaac

Renville, John B.

Renville, Victor

repatriation

requickening address

retreat

revitalization movement

Richmond, John P.

Ride-In and War Dance

Riggs, Alfred Longley

Riggs, Stephen

Riggs, Thomas Lawrence

ritual football game

roadman

Roberts, John

Roberts, Tudy

Robertson, Ann Eliza Worcester

Robertson, William Schenck

Robinson, Fred

Rock Baby

Roe, Walter C.

Rogers, Nadzaip

roll call of the chiefs

Romero, Juan de Jesus

rooster pull

root feast

Round Dance (Great Basin)

Round Dance (Plains Ojibway)

Rudder, Mark

Rundle, Robert Terrill

Rupert, Henry

Sacred Arrow keeper's woman

Sacred Arrows

Sacred Buffalo Hat

Sacred Buffalo Hat Woman

sacred fire

sacred formulas

sacred objects

sacred pipe

sacred pole (Chickasaw)

Sacred Pole (Omaha)

sacred rock medicines

sacred scrolls

sacred sites

sacrificial figurines

Saguaro Festival

Saint's Day fiesta

salt

San Francisco Peaks

Sanapia

Sand Altar Woman

Sand Crane

sandpainting

Santora

Sawyer, David

Schweigman, Bill

Scratching Ceremony

Sea Woman

Sedna Ceremony

Seed Planting Ceremony

selected women

Semmens, John

Sequoyah v. Tennessee Valley Authority

Sergeant, John

Serra, Junípero

Settee, James

Settee, John R.

Settee, Rural Dean

seven sacred rites of the Lakota

Shabazz v. Barnauskas

shades of the dead

Shaking Tent Ceremony

shaking-tent shaman

Shalako Ceremony

shaman

shamans' society (Nootka)

shamans' society (North Pacific Coast)

Shenandoah, Leon

Shipapolina

Shipapu

shiwana

Short Bull

Shramaia

Shu'denaci

single-pole ball game

Sitting Bull (Arapaho)

Sitting Bull (Lakota)

Sitting in the Sky

six Cherokee festivals

six directions

Six Nations meeting

Skanudharova

Skolaskin

Slayer of Monsters

Slocum, John

Slocum, Mary Thompson

Small Ankle

Smiley, Albert K.

Smith, Redbird

Smith, Stanley

Smohalla

smoke house

Smoke Lodge Ceremony

Snake-Antelope Ceremony

Snake, Reuben

Snoqualmie Falls

Snow, John

snow snake

societies

Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge (SPCK)

Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts (SPG)

Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in New England

Society of Women Planters

Sohappy, David

solstice ceremonies

Somilpilp

sorcery

soul (Inuit)

soul, overview

soul recovery ceremony

Soup Dance

Sour Springs Longhouse

Soyal

Spalding, Eliza Hart

Spalding, Henry

speaker

Spencer, Frank

Spider, Emerson, Sr.

Spirit Adoption Ceremony

Spirit Dance Ceremonial

spirit lodge ritual

Spring Rite

Star Doctor

stargazing

State of Arizona v. Janice and Fred Whittingham

State of Arizona v. Mary Attakai

State of New Mexico v. Robert Dan Pedro

State of Washington v. Robin H. Gunshows, et al.

State v. Soto

staying sickness

Stead, Robert

Steinhauer, Henry Bird

Steinmetz, Paul B.

Stevens, Frederick George

Stevens, Jedidiah D.

Stewart, John

Stick Dance

Stick Game Dance

stickball game

Stillday, Thomas, Jr.

stirring-ashes rite

Stomp Dance

Stone Forehead

Strawberry Festival

Striking-a-Stick Dance

Sun and Moon Ceremony

Sun Dance

Sun Dance (Lakota)

Sun Dance (Pawnee)

Sun (Navajo)

sun (Pueblo)

Sunday, John

supplication for long life

Sutkwewat

Suyeta

sweat lodge ceremony

sweat lodge rite

Sweet Grass Hills

Sweet Medicine

Swimmer

Sword Bearer

Sword, George

Ta-ne-haddle

tablitas

taboo

Tah'-lee

Tahirussawichi

Tai-may

Takes Gun, Frank

Talking God

Tamanous

Tanenolee

Tanoan moiety ceremonial associations

Tanoan moiety ceremonial organization

Tanoan pueblos

Tate, Charles Montgomery

Tavibo

Tea Dance

Tehorenhaegnon

Tekakwitha Conference

Tekakwitha, St. Kateri

Tenskwatawa

Tenth Day Feast

Terry, Joshua

Teshkwi

Teterud v. Gillman, Teterud v. Burns

Tewa ceremonialism

Tewa pueblos

Thanksgiving Address

Thanksgiving dance

Thomas, Jack

Thomas, Willie

Those-Who-Descend-from-the-Heavens

throwing of flowers

Throwing of the Ball Ceremony

Thunder Dance

Tiawit

Tims, John William

Tiwa pueblos

tobacco in American Indian mythology

tobacco invocation

Tobacco Society

Tonawanda Longhouse

Tongue River Valley

Toohoolhoolzote

Torry, Alvin

totem

Towa pueblo

Trade Dance

traveling rite

Trehero, John

Trott, James Jenkins

Tso, Hola

tube-sucking shaman

Tunerak

Tunkanshaiciye

Twins, Baldwin

Two Horn Society

Tyler, Leonard

Tyon, Thomas

United Foreign Missionary Society

United States Ex Rel. Goings v. Aaron

United States of America v. Buerk

United States v. Diaz

United States v. Jones

United States v. Means

United States v. Top Sky

Unmarked Human Burial Sites and Skeletal Remains Protection Act

Uplegger, Francis

Utah Clean Air Act and Pipe Ceremony Exemption

Uttamatomakin

uwannami

Veniaminov, Ivan

village chief

vision quest

Waban

Wabeno

Wabino Thanksgiving Ceremony

Wabokieshiek

Waehma

Wakan Feast

Walam Olum

Walker, Elkanah

Walker, James R.

wampum

Wangomend

war and scalp ceremonies

war captain

war ceremonials

War Dance (Iroquois)

War Dance (Navajo)

war gods

war twins

warriors society dances

Washani religion

Washat Dance

Washburn, Cephas

Washington, Joe

Washington, Mrs.

Washington, William

water drum

Waterbuster Clan Bundle

Waters, George

Watkins, Edwin Arthur

Webber, James C.

Wesaw, Tom and George

West, Emily J.

West, John

whale feast

whaling rituals

Wheelock, Eleazar

Wheelwright Museum

Whipple, Henry B.

White, Andrew

White Buffalo Calf Woman

White Bull

White Colt

White Deerskin Dance

White, Elijah

White, Frank

White Painted Woman

White Thunder

Whitehorn v. State of Oklahoma

Whiteshield, Harvey

Whitman, Marcus

Whitman, Narcissa Prentiss

Wilatsi

Wilbur, James H.

wild rice

Williams, Eleazar

Williams, Robert

Williams, Roger

Williamson, John P.

Williamson, Thomas S.

Willier, Russell

Willow Dance

Wilson, Edward Francis

Wilson, John

Wilson v. Block; Hopi Indian Tribe v. Block; Navajo Medicinemen's Association v. Block

Windigokan

Winslett, David

winter ceremonial (Kwakiutl)

winter ceremonial (North Pacific Coast)

winter ceremonial (Salish)

Winter Spirit Dance

witchcraft

Wodziwob

women's societies

women's songs

Wood, Thomas

Wooden Lance

Woodenlegs, John, Sr.

Woolsey, Thomas

Worcester, Samuel

world renewal ceremonial cycle

Wovoka

Wright, Alfred

Wright, Allen

Wright, Asher

Wright, Frank Hall

Wright, Laura Maria Sheldon

Wuwuchim Ceremony

Yaqui ceremonialism

Yehasuri

yei

Yeibichai masks

Yellow Hand

Yellowtail, Thomas

yoania

Yonagusta

Young, Egerton Ryerson

Yoyouni

yuwipi

Zeisberger, David

Zinzendorf, Nikolaus Ludvig

Zuni ceremonialism

Zuni Salt Lake in American Indian mythology

Entries

Abishabis

Also known as: Small Eyes; Abishabis (small eyes); Jesus

(fl. mid-1800s)

Cree

prophet

Abishabis was the principal prophet of a religious movement that spread among Cree in the Hudson Bay region from Churchill, Manitoba, to Albany, Ontario, from 1842 to 1843. Said to be influenced by words in hymns written in the Cree syllabic system devised by the Methodist missionary James Evans, he applied the name of Jesus to himself, while a companion became known as Wasiteck, or light The two men were believed to have visited heaven and returned with blessings and teachings for the people. They claimed the ability to draw The Track to Heaven on paper or wood, using the map or chart they created to convey their prophetic message. Abishabis and Wasiteck warned against the ways of the whites while pointing out the promise of game and other heavenly rewards for those who followed their teachings. In mid-1842, activities associated with the religious movement were recorded in Churchill and Severn on the western coast of Hudson Bay. By fall of that year, a large group of Cree in Severn were reportedly occupied in psalm singing and painting books and making the woods to ring … with musick There is evidence that the activities eventually spread and gathered strength throughout the area. As his influence as a prophet grew, Abishabis was given gifts and clothing and other goods by his supporters. An elderly woman referred to as a priestess helped gain acceptance for the religious movement by carrying its message eastward from York to Albany.

The religious movement had roots in both Native and non-Native cultures. In 1840 Cree syllabic writings started circulating among Native people in the area. Evans, who promoted Christianity with the system, encouraged those he taught to teach others. As the teachings written in Cree syllabics traveled, Indians, such as Abishabis and Wasiteck, could have added their own interpretations to the texts. Besides taking words from hymns for their names, the two men were said to have introduced observance of the Sabbath as part of their religious teachings. Although they used fragments of Christianity, the religious movement of Abishabis and Wasiteck was rooted in their own culture as well. It is likely that the symbolic writings and drawings reminded the Cree people of those used in Midewiwin scrolls and other sacred texts. The messages of the prophets also placed an emphasis upon returning to Native ways.

The religious movement declined as a result of white opposition to it and because of the waning popularity of Abishabis himself. As he sought more goods for his followers, his support diminished and he returned to his earlier poverty. By mid-1843 he was suspected of robbing and killing a York area Indian family. Abishabis subsequently fled to Severn, where he was temporarily detained by a Hudson's Bay Company officer. During his detention he was seized by area Indians, who killed and burned him. Abishabis was believed to have become a windigo, a dreaded cannibalistic being of Cree and other northern Algonquian belief, which would endanger the people if it was not destroyed. Although it is not known how long the religious movement persisted, it is believed to have lasted for a time after the death of Abishabis. The movement was written about by George Barnley, Methodist missionary to the James Bay area, and in the Hudson's Bay Company post records.

Entry Author: Hirschfelder, Arlene, and Paulette Molin.

Acceptance of the Drum Ceremony

Osage

A ceremony conducted in connection with the transfer of a sacred drum to a new drumkeeper during the course of the four-day I'N-Lon-Schka Ceremonial Dance in June. The drumkeeper is always an eldest son, for in Osage belief such a child is considered a special blessing. The drumkeeper is assisted by family members in carrying out the extensive responsibilities associated with the role, the most important of which is the care and protection of the sacred drum belonging to his community. Each of the three Osage communities in Oklahoma possesses its own drum. Features of the ceremony include an announcement of acceptance of the drum by the new drumkeeper and his family, the public honoring and thanking of individuals for past service, the presentation of gifts to honored persons and the giving of formal speeches. The gift-giving signifies the new drumkeeper's acceptance of the honor and responsibility of caring for the sacred drum. His first act as the official drumkeeper is generally to open the dance by striking the first drum beat. The first drumkeeper of the I'n-Lon-Schka was Ben Mashunkashay.

Entry Author: Hirschfelder, Arlene, and Paulette Molin.

Acorn Feast

Hupa

An annual observance that sanctified the first eating of acorns each fall to ensure the continuing supply of this food. People celebrated in autumn when nuts began to fall from tan oaks. An officiant collected the acorns and ritually cooked them, repeating lengthy ritual texts, saying prayers, and executing sacred acts. After the procedures were completed, people were allowed to eat the acorns. An acorn feast was held in November 1989 at the Hostler Rancheria for the first time in more than 50 years.

Entry Author: Hirschfelder, Arlene, and Paulette Molin.

Act for the Preservation of American Antiquities

1906

(Act of June 8, 1906, c. 3060,&1, 34 Stat. 225 [codified at 16 U.S.C.&431–433, 1976]) This federal act, which became law on June 8, 1906, makes it a criminal offense to appropriate, excavate, injure, or destroy historic or prehistoric ruins or monuments or objects of antiquity located on lands owned or controlled by the United States government. The Antiquities Act, which provides a permit requirement for those conducting archaeological research and excavations in areas under federal jurisdiction, was found to be unconstitutionally vague in United States v. Diaz (1973) because it did not define significant statutory terms. The statute's weakness was also noted in United States v. Jones (1978), when charges were dismissed against defendants seen digging among ruins and arrested with American Indian artifacts in their possession. Another federal law, the Archaeological Resources Protection Act of 1979 was passed by Congress to correct deficiencies in the Antiquities Act. However, problems persist in protecting Native American remains, gravesites, and burial offerings from exploitation under these laws.

Entry Author: Hirschfelder, Arlene, and Paulette Molin.

adoption string

Tutelo, Six Nations Reserve, Canada

During the Tutelo Spirit Adoption Ceremony, the person adopted wears a long single loop or chain of white Tutelo wampum beneath the shirt. The wampum passes over the left shoulder and down the right side to the waist. The chain symbolizes the return to life of a deceased Tutelo person as revived in the personality of the adopted person who becomes the living representative of the deceased. At the end of the ceremony, the string of Tutelo wampum is removed from the adopted person and safeguarded until the next adoption rite.

Entry Author: Hirschfelder, Arlene, and Paulette Molin.

Afraid-of-Bears

Also known as: Feather Dance Priest

fl. late 1800s

Kiowa

visionary, originator of the Feather Dance

Afraid-of-Bears, who had suffered a serious illness as a youngster, was assisted in his recovery by a Ghost Dance adherent. He later experienced a vision in which he saw a performance of a sacred dance he named the Feather Dance. A reinterpretation of the Ghost Dance of 1890, it included the ordination of 10 priests, the use of a symbolic yellow cross and cedar tree, the gift of an eagle feather to members who generally wore them upright during the ceremonies, and prayers to the Creator. The dance itself followed the instructions received from Sitting Bull, the Arapaho apostle, who had introduced the Ghost Dance to the Kiowa. Afraid-of-bears served as a missionary, spreading a message of hope among his Kiowa followers. The federal government, which considered the Ghost Dance one of the heathenish customs it opposed, sought to eradicate the religious dance among the Kiowa between 1890 and 1916. The Office of Indian Affairs withheld tribal rations and lease funds from the Kiowa people until they agreed, in a statement signed in 1916, to no longer hold the sacred dance.

Entry Author: Hirschfelder, Arlene, and Paulette Molin.

air spirit

Also known as: sila

Inuit

Called sila by most Inuit people, this term has an extensive range of meanings. It is a spiritual power or force permeating the universe, nature, the air, the wind, the weather, and open sky. The beliefs of individual peoples vary. The Chugach, southernmost Alaska Natives, believe sila signifies the universe, controls the weather and air, and is an omnipresent power in the world. The Koniag regard sila as the highest power that created sky and earth, ruling air and light and having power to create earthquakes. The Copper Inuit perceive sila as the lower regions of the sky, responsible for good weather. A major deity in some regions, his (the masculine pronoun is employed by Inuit with the exception of Caribou groups) power includes giving life and healing the sick.

Entry Author: Hirschfelder, Arlene, and Paulette Molin.

All-Smoking Ceremony

Blackfeet

A sacred ceremony and religious society among the Blackfeet. The ceremony is generally initiated after a request is made, according to the appropriate ritual procedure, to an individual qualified to lead it. When an agreement is reached to have the ceremony, preparations begin. Ritual elements include the singing of sacred medicine songs by their owners, the preparation of an offering to the Sun, the symbolic painting of the person who made the vow along with family members, ritual smoking, and consecration. The all-smoking ceremony concludes with a feast of berry soup after offerings and prayers are made.

Entry Author: Hirschfelder, Arlene, and Paulette Molin.

Allis, Samuel, Jr.

(b. 1805–d. 1883)

Presbyterian missionary to the Pawnee

Samuel Allis Jr. worked among the Pawnee people under the auspices of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions (ABCFM). He was born on September 28, 1805, in Conway, Massachusetts, to Congregationalist parents. He began learning the saddle and harness trade when he was 17 years old, eventually working at it for four years. Allis later joined the Presbyterian Church in Ithaca, New York, and turned to religious work. In 1834 he accompanied the Reverend John Dunbar west to establish a mission among the Flathead or Nez Perce people. Their plans changed en route, and they instead began working among the Pawnee in present-day Nebraska. After arriving in the fall, the two missionaries settled with different bands until the following spring. After acquainting themselves with the people and selecting a mission site, the work was delayed because of a number of circumstances. The tribal population was devastated by smallpox, starvation, and war. A mission was eventually established and civilizing programs started. Allis was married to Emeline Palmer on April 23, 1836, and she joined him in his work among the Pawnee.

In 1841 Allis received an appointment to serve as government teacher to the Pawnee. The mission was abandoned in 1846 because of repeated raids against the tribal group by their Lakota enemy. Allis then operated a boarding school for Native children in what is now Bellevue, Nebraska, for two years. He farmed in Iowa from 1851 to 1857, also serving as an interpreter for the government. Allis moved to Fremont, Nebraska, in 1857 and remained there until his death in 1883. His book Forty Years among the Indians and on the Eastern Borders of Nebraska was published in 1887.

Entry Author: Hirschfelder, Arlene, and Paulette Molin.

Allouez, Claude Jean

(b. 1622–d. 1689)

French missionary in the Great Lakes region and the upper Mississippi River

Born in France, Claude Jean Allouez became a Jesuit novitiate in 1639 at the age of 17 and was ordained in 1655. Three years later, he went to Canada and started his work among Huron and eastern Algonquian peoples. Father Allouez mastered both the Huron (an Iroquoian language) and Algonquian languages, eventually preparing a prayerbook in the Illinois (an Algonquian language) and French languages. His fluency in these Native languages earned him prestige among the different Indian nations. It is reported that he preached to more than 22 different tribes and baptized an estimated 10,000 Indians in the present-day states of Michigan, Minnesota, and Wisconsin during his 24 years of missionary work. In 1663, he was appointed vicar general of the part of Quebec that now constitutes the central part of the United States. He established missions at Saint Esprit on the south shore of Lake Superior, at Green Bay on Lake Michigan, and at Sault Ste. Marie. He explored thousands of miles of lands unknown to the French and penned the earliest published accounts of Illinois Indians, people he preached to after 1676. He died in present-day Indiana.

Entry Author: Hirschfelder, Arlene, and Paulette Molin.

Altham, John

(b. 1585–d. 1640)

English Jesuit missionary

John Altham was born in Warwickshire, England. It is believed he became a Jesuit missionary in 1623. In 1633, Father Altham joined Father Andrew White, another Catholic missionary, on a colonizing expedition to the present-day state of Maryland. Although his constituency was the Catholic residents at St. Mary's Fort in Maryland, he was interested in work among the Indians. He preached and converted several chieftains before he died at St. Mary's.

Entry Author: Hirschfelder, Arlene, and Paulette Molin.

Amantacha

(b. ca. 1610–d. ca. 1636)

Huron (Wyandot)

aide to Jesuit missionaries

Amantacha was born in Huron country, in Canada. He was educated in Rouen, France, by Jesuits and baptized as Louis de Sainte-Foi in the cathedral at Rouen. In France where he remained for two years, he learned to read and write the French language. In 1629 he returned to Huron country, where he assisted explorer Samuel de Champlain and other Jesuits in their relations with the Huron people. Amantacha made raids into Iroquois country in order to gain prestige with his own people as a warrior. In 1636, on one such raid, he was captured and believed to have been killed.

Entry Author: Hirschfelder, Arlene, and Paulette Molin.

American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions (ABCFM)

A society founded in Massachusetts by the Congregationalists in 1810 to support Christian missionary efforts among nonbelievers. It supported the efforts of Presbyterians and Congregationalists. Its first mission to American Indians was initiated in the Cherokee Nation by the Reverend Cyrus Kingsbury in 1816 and began with the founding of Brainerd Station near Chattanooga, Tennessee.

Entry Author: Hirschfelder, Arlene, and Paulette Molin.

American Indian Mission Association

A missionary society founded by the Reverend Isaac Mccoy in 1842. McCoy believed that overseas missions received more funding from the Baptist Foreign Mission Board than did missions for American Indian groups. He further believed that a separate organization would garner more support for Native missions. However, the Baptists failed to adopt the American Indian Mission Association at a triennial convention held in 1844. The following year McCoy's association was included in the work of the newly organized Baptist Board of Domestic Missions of the Southern Convention.

Entry Author: Hirschfelder, Arlene, and Paulette Molin.

American Indian Religious Freedom Act

Also known as: Native American Religious Freedom Act

1978

(P. L. 95-341, 92 Stat. 469., 42 U.S.C. 1996) Act designed to officially guarantee constitutional First Amendment protection of freedom of religion for Native Americans. The legislation protects and preserves the inherent right of American Indians, Eskimos, Aleuts and Native Hawaiian people to believe, express, and exercise their traditional religions, including the access to sites, use and possession of sacred objects, and freedom to worship through ceremonials and traditional rites. The act requires federal agencies to respect the customs, ceremonies, and traditions of Native American religions and makes amends for the federal government's previous suppression of Indian ceremonial life. The act's second section directs federal departments and agencies to review their policies, procedures, and practices with the intent of making changes to correct the historical legacy of persecution, intolerance, and insensitivity. However, AIRFA has been viewed as more of a policy statement rather than a mandate giving Indian people legally enforceable rights. Subsequent to the negative Supreme Court decision in Lyng, Secretary of Agriculture, et al. v. Northwest Indian Cemetery Protective Ass'n. et al. (1988), Indian tribes, national Indian organizations, and certain senators and representatives have been trying to strengthen the act by amending it. They are trying to improve notice and consultation procedures, legal courses and action, and other aspects of AIRFA.

Entry Author: Hirschfelder, Arlene, and Paulette Molin.

American Indian Religious Freedom Act Amendments

Also known as: Native American Religious Freedom Act Amendments

1994

(P. L. 103-344, 108 Stat. 3125) On October 6, 1994, President Bill Clinton signed historic legislation guaranteeing American Indians the right to use the sacrament of peyote in traditional religious ceremonies throughout the United States. The year before, on November 16, 1993, President Clinton signed the Religious Freedom Restoration Act of 1993 (RFRA) reversing the Supreme Court's 1990 ruling in Employment Division, Department of Human Resources of Oregon, et al. v. Smith et al. The Court held that Native Americans who use peyote in their religious ceremonies were not exempt from the narcotics law that applies to everyone else. RFRA prohibited any unit of government from substantially burdening a person's exercise of religion unless the government demonstrates that the application of the burden to the person is in the furtherance of a compelling governmental interest and is the least restrictive means of furthering that governmental interest. RFRA restored the compelling interest requirement wherein governments would have to show an overriding public interest was being served by interfering with a religious practice, the requirement removed by the Supreme Court in the Oregon peyote case. On June 25, 1997, the U.S. Supreme Court declared RFRA unconstitutional in City of Boerne v. P. F. Flores.

At the time Congress considered RFRA, it also considered another bill—the Native American Free Exercise of Religion Act of 1993 (NAFERA)—that aimed to protect traditional forms of worship practiced by Indian peoples. After working with the Clinton administration, tribes, and leaders of the American Indian Religious Freedom Coalition on extensive amendments to NAFERA, in the summer of 1994, Senator Daniel K. Inouye (D-Hawaii) introduced new legislation that included cultural protection as well as religious protection. This act specifically protected sacramental use of peyote, sacred sites, prisoners' rights, and ceremonial use of eagle feathers and other animal parts. No action was taken on the bill due to mounting concerns regarding sacred sites.

Congressional inaction led to the formation of an unprecedented coalition of Native American Church (NAC) leaders, tribal leaders, and Native American Rights Fund attorneys that came together to develop a strategy for the enactment of separate peyote legislation. The group focused its efforts on H.R. 4230, introduced by Representative Bill Richardson (D-N.Mex.), that aimed to amend the American Indian Religious Freedom Act of 1978 and provide for the traditional use of peyote by Indians for religious purposes. Throughout the campaign to enact H.R. 4230, the group worked closely with officials of the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) and U. S. Department of Justice. Representatives of the DEA testified at a House hearing that religious use of peyote by Indians was not related to the nation's drug problem.

Technically, Public Law 103–344 is an amendment to the American Indian Religious Freedom Act of 1978 (AIRFA). It amends AIRFA by adding a new Section 3 with provisions to protect the religious use of peyote by Indians. The intent of the law was to overturn the Supreme Court decision in the Oregon case.

Section 3(b)(1) provides that: (1) the use, possession, or transportation of peyote by Indians for religious purposes is lawful and shall not be prohibited by any state or by the federal government; and (2) no Indians shall be penalized or discriminated against for such use, possession, or transportation, including the denial of otherwise applicable benefits under public assistance programs.

Consistent with these protections, section 3(b)(2) and (3) of the law preserve the existing authority of the DEA and the state of Texas, where peyote is harvested, to reasonably regulate the cultivation, harvest, and distribution of peyote by Indians (considered to be those with at least one-quarter degree Indian blood) for religious purposes. The sole change to Texas law is that Indians, as defined in the statute may use peyote for religious purposes in Texas without regard to the one-quarter degree blood requirement. As defined in the law, Indian means a member of an Indian tribe

Section 3(b)(5) clarifies the intent of NAC leaders that the bill does not require federal or state prison authorities to permit the use of peyote by Indian inmates, even though such authorities may allow such use at their discretion.

Section 3(b)(4) and (7) requires that any public safety regulations limiting Indian use of peyote must: (1) be reasonable; (2) be done in consultation with religious leaders; and (3) be subject to the religious freedom compelling state interest balancing test of RFRA. This section, requested by the Clinton administration, applies to safety sensitive jobs, law enforcement, and jobs in federal public transportation. The NAC asserted this was a nonissue because members do not go to work in an impaired condition or drive while taking peyote.

Entry Author: Hirschfelder, Arlene, and Paulette Molin.

American Indian Religious Freedom Coalition

An association of the United States's major mainstream religious denominations, human-rights groups, environmental organizations, Indian tribes, and national Indian organizations that tried to overturn the Supreme Court's ruling in Employment Division, Department of Human Resources of Oregon, et al. v. Smith et al.Smith not only stripped Native Americans of First Amendment protections for traditional worship and created a crisis in Indian country, it also seriously weakened religious liberty for all Americans and forced the courts to treat other religious practitioners like the Indians in Smith.

The decision produced an enormous public outcry by the American religious community and constitutional law scholars. The ruling had a profound impact on the concept of American religious liberty in general, and in particular, narrowed the religious liberties of Americans from many different faiths and religious backgrounds. After Smith, the constitutional right of religious freedom was reduced to a statutory right and the goodwill of legislators. Citizens of all religious persuasions turned toward Congress to restore their human right of worship.

In 1991, Senator Daniel K. Inouye (D-Hawaii), a champion of Native rights in the U.S. Senate, sponsored a national leaders' forum in Denver, Colorado. Out of this forum was born the American Indian Religious Freedom Coalition, co-chaired by President Peterson Zah of the Navajo Nation and Patrick Lefthand of the Confederated Salish and Kootenai tribes of the Flathead Nation. The coalition held its first national conference in Albuquerque, New Mexico, on November 22, 1991. Over the course of the next two years, the coalition grew to more than 100 members from the nation's major mainstream religious denominations, human-rights groups, environmental organizations, Indian tribes, and national Indian organizations.

The coalition aimed to develop and support federal legislation to overturn the Smith Supreme Court decision and restore Native Americans to the protections of the First Amendment. The coalition drafted, lobbied for, and ultimately secured the passage of the Religious Freedom Restoration Act of 1993.

Entry Author: Hirschfelder, Arlene, and Paulette Molin.

American Indian Ritual Object Repatriation Foundation

Founded by Elizabeth Sackler and headquartered in New York City, the American Indian Ritual Object Repatriation Foundation (AIRORF) assists in the repatriation of ceremonial material to Native nations, clans, or families who are the rightful owners. The loss of ceremonial material has prevented many American Indians from passing tribal knowledge to future generations, consequently destroying traditions of prayer, medicine, and rites of passage. AIRORF is an intercultural partnership also committed to ridding the art market of inappropriate sales of Native ceremonial items.

Sackler's efforts in repatriation began in the spring of 1991. The Hopi and Navajo Nations requested Sotheby's auction house in New York City to remove three ceremonial masks from its annual Fine American Indian Arts auction. Sotheby's refusal, on the grounds that the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act of 1990 (NAGPRA) was inapplicable to the auction house, received national media coverage. Because art auction houses, dealers, private collectors, corporations, and other nonfederally funded institutions are not bound by NAGPRA, they are not required to notify Native nations of potentially repatriatable materials in their collections. Nonetheless, Native nations regularly learn of materials in these kinds of collections that they would like to have returned. Though individuals and institutions in the private sector are under no legal obligation to repatriate these materials, there have been a number of occasions in which they have done so.

Moved to action, Sackler attended the May 21 auction and purchased the masks in order to return them to the Hopi and Navajo. The event began Sackler's commitment to the repatriation of traditional Native American ceremonial material that is inappropriately displayed and sold on the art market. She wrote that she began AIRORF when she realized that an opportunity existed for an intercultural partnership addressing issues of exploitation of Native Peoples by the art market

The foundation assists in repatriation from the private sector by acting as a liaison, introducing the individual collector to Native representatives and assisting in the transfer of material directly from the collector to the Native nation or individual. It serves as a conduit, legally and physically accepting title and possession of an object from a donor, and then transferring title and possession to the tribe/clan/individual. When requested, it assists Native nations, museums, and collectors with federal and other repatriation policies and serves as a clearinghouse for information about the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act, sales, and private sector repatriation strategies. AIRORF communicates with dealers, auction houses, collectors, and the general public, through magazine articles and interviews with the media, about the importance of repatriation and ethics in the art market.

The foundation, which neither grants funds nor purchases ceremonial objects, is a nonfederally funded, public, nonprofit organization that makes it possible for collectors to obtain tax deductions allowable by law on repatriated objects. According to Sackler, the foundation's Board of Trustees determined that purchasing objects supports the art market; our mission is not to participate in the marketplace but to transform it

Examples of AIRORF's endeavors include:

donation of 11 Anasazi pots to the Southern Ute Indian Cultural Center in 1992

successful negotiations for the donation of three sacred False Face masks to the organization for return to the Tonawanda Band of Seneca owners in November 1993

successful negotiations for the donation of a Mountain Spirit headdress, Crown mask, and two Lightning Wands by the City of Willcox, Arizona, to the White Mountain Apache in May 1994

successful negotiations for the donation of a ceremonial mask to the organization for return to the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians by Continental Casualty Company in February 1997

The foundation's involvement in education has resulted in publications such as Mending the Circle: A Native American Repatriation Guide (1996, revised in 1997) as well as newsletters. Besides Sackler, who serves as president of the Board of Trustees, board members include cofounder Anne Bleecker Corcos; Vine Deloria, Jr. (Standing Rock Sioux), professor of History, University of Colorado; Michael Haney (Seminole/Sioux), executive director, American Indian Arbitration Institute; Oren Lyons (Onondaga), professor of History, SUNY Buffalo; Carol Master, M.D., Harvard Hillel Children's School; Franc Menusan (Creek/Métis), educator; Sheri Sandler, exhibition research and development, Cooper-Hewitt National Design Museum; and Marilyn Youngbird (Arikara/Hidatsa), holistic health practitioner.

Entry Author: Hirschfelder, Arlene, and Paulette Molin.

Anawangmani, Simon

Also known as: He Who Goes Galloping Along

(b. ca. 1808–d. 1891)

Dakota

Christian convert, licensed Presbyterian preacher

Simon Anawangmani attended the mission school established by Dr. Thomas S. Williamson at Lac qui Parle in Minnesota Territory. He was one of the signers of the Treaty of Traverse des Sioux in 1851 in which the eastern Dakota bands ceded millions of acres of their ancestral lands in the Mississippi valley to the U.S. government. He served as a church elder from 1854 to 1863 and was a member of the Hazelwood Republic that Paul Mazakutemani, a Dakota convert, had helped organize for tribal members who had adopted farming and accommodated to the changes promoted by Williamson, Stephen Return Riggs, and other mission workers. During the Dakota War of 1862, fought between Santee Dakota and Euro-American forces, Anawangmani favored peace. He helped to protect the missionaries in the area, took a female captive and her children to Fort Ridgely in Minnesota, and served as a scout in Colonel Henry H. Sibley's military campaigns against rebel Dakota until 1865. Anawangmani received his license to preach from the Dakota presbytery in July 1866. In 1875 he resettled on the Sisseton Reservation in South Dakota and died there in 1891.

Entry Author: Hirschfelder, Arlene, and Paulette Molin.

Anderson, George

(b. ca. 1875–d. unknown)

Delaware (Lenni Lenape)

leader and missionary of the Peyote Religion

George Anderson was the nephew of John Wilson, the Caddo-Delaware originator of the Big Moon peyote ceremony. Anderson's first experience with peyote occurred at the age of 14 when Wilson gave it to him as treatment during an illness. It was not until several years later, however, that he began learning more about peyotism. He and his brother, John Anderson, both became recognized leaders who professed the religious doctrines of their famous uncle. Anderson eventually spread peyotism among other tribal groups, including the Osage and the Seneca. He provided an account of Wilson's religious conversion to the ethnologist Frank Speck, published in 1933, and his own practices were described a year later in another publication. The Anderson brothers were identified as very pious adherents who considered it almost sacrilegious to talk about peyote.

Entry Author: Hirschfelder, Arlene, and Paulette Molin.

animal dances

Pueblo

Ceremonies held during winter variously named after buffalo, deer, antelope, or other game animals and having many different functions. The dances dramatize the relationship between Indians and the game animals that furnish their wintertime food. Some dances are meant to lure animals from the mountains and plains to sacrifice their lives, to propitiate the spirits of animals, and to encourage an increase of animals offering themselves to hunters. Some dances are prayers for rain, snow, and well-being. Some dances are enacted for healing (there are many versions of this dance). Some dances may include numerous deer or buffalo; other dances may have two buffalo, one or two buffalo mothers, a hunter, a chorus of singers and drummers, or pairs of deer, antelope, elk, and mountain sheep. Dancers may be masked or unmasked, and some may portray a great deal or little, if any, impersonation of animal behavior. The dancers dress to represent the animal, wearing headdresses, horns, and antlers. The dances begin at dawn when the animals come in from the hills surrounding a pueblo to perform their dance.

Entry Author: Hirschfelder, Arlene, and Paulette Molin.

Anointing the Sacred Pole Ceremony

Omaha

A ceremony held to commemorate the origin of the Sacred Pole and to give thanks for the buffalo. It was conducted annually during the summer, although it was once customary to anoint the pole twice a year. The ceremony, including preliminary activities, lasted several days. All travel came to an end until the observance was completed.

The Sacred Pole symbolized different aspects of Omaha life in the two-part ceremony. In the first part, officiated by a man, the pole stood for the governing authority of the tribe and the unity of the people. During the second part of the ceremony, conducted by a woman who represented motherhood and prayed for the people to continue and prosper, the pole was symbolic of the men as protectors and providers of the home. The religious observance included the performance of ritual songs, ceremonial offerings, the smoking of the pipe belonging to the pole, symbolic charging of the pole, and anointing of the pole with a mixture of buffalo fat and red paint symbolizing abundant life. The songs had to be sung in the proper sequence; a ceremony of contrition was required if a mistake was made.

With the decimation of the buffalo, essential to the religious observance, the ceremony became more and more difficult to continue. During the late 1800s the Omaha requested permission from the Department of the Interior to use funds to purchase cattle for use in a feast. They hoped to bring about the return of the buffalo and to restore blessings to the people through the performance of their traditional rite. Although ceremonies were held, conditions remained the same and opposition developed, both by the government and within the tribe, against future expenditures for that purpose. In 1888 the Sacred Pole was turned over by the keeper Shu'denaci to Harvard's Peabody Museum for safekeeping, and 101 years later, in 1989, it was returned to the Omaha tribe.

Entry Author: Hirschfelder, Arlene, and Paulette Molin.

Apache ceremonialism

Ceremonies are conducted by people who are channels for spiritual power for healing, locating an enemy, finding lost persons and objects, diagnosing illness, protecting from illness, and improving luck. The rites may be conducted by a shaman for a particular individual in need, or they may be more traditional ceremonies. Healing ceremonies last one, two, four, or eight nights. Shorter ceremonies are held for diagnostic reasons with longer rituals aimed at eliminating the illness. Curing ceremonies have discrete elements, including masked dances, chants, prayers, stylized gestures, and the use of ritual paraphernalia and sand paintings. In the case of illness, the shaman sucks at the afflicted spot with a tube and administers herbs or special foods. At the rite's conclusion, the shaman is paid. Vital rituals are also associated with an individual's life cycle. These rites include a cradle ceremony, a ceremony when children begin to walk (putting on moccasins), and a hair-cutting ceremony. At puberty, girls participate in another elaborate rite. Observances for boys at puberty are less formal.

Entry Author: Hirschfelder, Arlene, and Paulette Molin.

Apache power concepts

In traditional Apache belief, there is spiritual power that pervades the universe and can be utilized for human purposes by ritual procedures known to priests or shamans. The sources of power can help or harm as they wish, depending on whether they are pleased or offended by human conduct. Some powers can be called in to diagnose, cure, and protect against illness. Besides aiding its owner in performing specific tasks, power also provides protection against adversity.

Power must be conveyed through some channel or spiritual helper, like a plant, animal, rock, celestial body, or any created thing. Power can only be transmitted through the helper to a receptive and responsive believer. If the individual accepts the invitation from a spiritual power, he or she is put through an initiation to test courage and then undergoes years of training under the guidance of an established shaman who is paid for his services. Acquisition of power at some point in life is considered normal for some Apache males. The power is acquired through instruction or by a vision in which the power presents itself voluntarily and is imparted.

Regardless of how power is acquired, it is controlled with a set of chants and prayers belonging to the power. The ability to dispense power depends on the ability of a person to learn and retain chants and prayers. Once a power has given some part of itself to a seeker, the person determines what it is capable of doing through him. He learns what it can accomplish, through trial and error, when correctly used. Owners must maintain appropriate behavior toward sources of power and the channeling power of the shaman can be withdrawn any time the power is displeased. Failure to observe effective contact with a power engenders hostility or results in sickness if taboos surrounding objects from which power emanate or reside are violated.

Entry Author: Hirschfelder, Arlene, and Paulette Molin.

Apess, William

Also known as: William Apes

(b. 1798–d. 1839)

Pequot

writer, preacher, activist

William Apes worked among the Mashpee people of Cape Cod. Born on January 31, 1798 near Colrain, Massachusetts, his father was a mixed-blood and his mother a descendant of the Wampanoag leader King Philip. As a child, his parents, basketmakers, were often away, and he stayed with his grandparents, who treated him brutally. After his grandmother broke his arm when he was five, he was rescued by an uncle and a neighbor. Apes lived with whites until he was 15, then ran away and enlisted in the army. After his military discharge, he married a white woman and became a minister. Unable to obtain a license from the Methodist Episcopal Church, he joined the Methodist Society and was ordained in 1829.

A few years later Apes visited the Mashpee and found them in need of community services and leadership. Although a missionary had been appointed to the local Native peoples by Harvard College and had obtained several hundred acres of land, he was working instead among neighboring whites. Apes not only became a member of the Mashpee tribe (a subgroup of Wampanoag) but assumed a leadership role as well. He encouraged the Mashpee people to adopt a number of measures, including the dismissal of the white missionary and overseers. Apes also forbade the whites to cut wood on tribal land and was later arrested after forcibly reclaiming wood from a man who had challenged the order. Charged with inciting to riot, he received a 30-day jail sentence. The case received widespread attention, and the legislature later acted favorably on a petition presented by the Indians stating their grievances. Apes filed libel suits against his opponents, compelling them to apologize.

Apes was the author of several publications: A Son of the Forest (1829), an autobiography; The Experiences of Five Christian Indians (1833); Indian Nullification of the Unconstitutional Laws of Massachusetts Relative to the Marshpee Tribe: or, the Pretended Riot Explained (1835); and Eulogy on King Philip (1836). Apes later added an s to his surname.

Entry Author: Hirschfelder, Arlene, and Paulette Molin.

Arch, John

Also known as: Atsi

(b. unknown–1825 )

Cherokee

missionary assistant, interpreter

John Arch helped establish Creek Path Mission among the Chickamauga Cherokee in 1820. Because he knew English, which he had learned earlier, he became an invaluable assistant to the missionaries after they admitted him provisionally to the Brainerd mission school in 1818. He arrived at Creek Path, near present-day Warrenton, Alabama, with the Reverend Daniel Sabin Butrick in March 1820. After constructing a building, they began their missionary efforts. Besides assuming responsibility of elementary instruction, Arch itinerated among the people and served as an interpreter. His linguistic work included a Cherokee translation of the third chapter of John. Arch, who was in his twenties during the brief time he was at Creek Path, died of tuberculosis on June 18, 1825 at Brainerd Mission.

Entry Author: Hirschfelder, Arlene, and Paulette Molin.

Archaeological Resources Protection Act of 1979

1979

(P.L. 96–95, 93 Stat. 721., 16, U.S.C. &&470aa–470ll [Supp. IV, 1980]) An act of Congress designed to protect archaeological resources and sites on public and American Indian lands from uncontrolled excavation and pillage This legislation attempted to correct deficiencies, including vague statutory terms, found in the Act for the Preservation of American Antiquities of 1906. The Archaeological Resources Protection Act prohibits any person from excavating, removing, damaging, or otherwise altering or defacing any archaeological resource on lands under its jurisdiction unless a permit for such activities has been obtained. Archaeological resources are defined by the act as:

… any material remains of past human life or activities which are of archaeological interest, as determined under uniform regulations promulgated pursuant to this chapter. Such regulations shall include … : pottery, basketry, bottles, weapons, weapon projectiles, tools, structures, or portions of structures, pit houses, rock paintings, rock carvings, intaglios, graves, human skeletal materials, or any portion or piece of the foregoing items.

The statute also requires that an item be at least 100 years old to be considered an archaeological resource.

Under the Archaeological Resources Protection Act, an applicant seeking a permit to work on Indian lands must obtain the consent of the Indian landowner or Indian tribe with jurisdiction over the area. The act also includes a provision concerning tribal religious or cultural sites located on public lands. Where there is reason to believe that archaeological activities could result in harm to a site, the tribe or tribes considering the area religiously or culturally important must be notified before a permit is issued. Mandatory terms and conditions for permits include those specified by Indian landowners having jurisdiction over sites where an applicant seeks to work. Other provisions of the Archaeological Resources Protection Act address the custody of recovered objects, with the emphasis upon preservation, not repatriation.

Penalties for violating the Archaeological Resources Protection Act are stiffer than those under the 1906 antiquities legislation. They include initial fines of up to $10,000 and imprisonment for up to one year. The penalties are higher when restoration costs and the value of the archaeological resource removed or damaged exceeds $5,000. Further violations may result in fines of up to $100,000 and imprisonment of up to five years.

One limitation of the legislation is that it does not protect objects created less than 100 years ago. Another is that it does not affect anyone who lawfully possessed archaeological resources before October 31, 1979, when the act was passed. Therefore, the problem for Native Americans of reacquiring objects taken before that date still remains.

Entry Author: Hirschfelder, Arlene, and Paulette Molin.

Arthur, Mark K.

Also known as: Kul-kul-stu-hah

(b. 1873–d. 1947)

Nez Perce

Presbyterian minister to the Nez Perce

Mark K. Arthur was born near present-day Whitebird, Idaho. After his father was killed in Montana at the Battle of Big Hole in 1877 and his mother captured a short time later, Arthur and other tribal members fled to Canada. There, the Native exiles included Sitting Bull, the Lakota holy man.