Some Aspects of Rabbinic Theology (Barnes & Noble Digital Library)

By Solomon Schechter

Published in 1909, this volume consists of a series of lectures subsequently edited and expanded by the author.  Chapter titles include "God and Israel," "The Joy of the Law," "Sin as Rebellion," and "Forgiveness and Reconciliation with God." The book resulted in a re-evaluation of the teachings of the Pharisees—which had become the basis for almost all forms of present-day Judaism.

• Language: English
• Publisher: Barnes & Noble
• Release date: Aug 23, 2011
• ISBN: 9781411462359

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SOME ASPECTS OF RABBINIC THEOLOGY

SOLOMON SCHECHTER

This 2011 edition published by Barnes & Noble, Inc.

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PREFACE

THE contents of this book have grown out of a course of lectures delivered at various learned centres, and a series of essays published in the Jewish Quaterly Review. These essays began to appear in the year 1894. They attracted some notice, and were utilised by several writers on theological subjects, both with and without due acknowledgment. They are now presented to the public in an expanded form, revised and corrected, and increased by new chapters and other additional matter, amounting to about half of the bulk of this volume.

The first chapter, which is introductory, offers the reader a fair notion of the nature of our subject as conceived by the author, the point of view from which he approaches it, the inherent difficulties in its treatment, and the manner in which he has tried to accomplish his task. Yet a few supplementary remarks seem to be necessary.

This volume represents no philosophic exposition of the body of doctrine of the Synagogue, nor does it offer a description of its system of ethics. Both the philosophy of the Synagogue and its ethics have been treated in various works by competent scholars belonging to different schools of thought. The main aim of such works is, however, as it would seem, interpretation, more often re-interpretation. The object of the following pages is a different one. The task I set myself was to give a presentation of Rabbinic opinion on a number of theological topics as offered by the Rabbinic literature, and forming an integral part of the religious consciousness of the bulk of the nation or Catholic Israel.

Keeping this end in view, I considered it advisable not to intrude too much interpretation or paraphrase upon the Rabbis. I let them have their own say in their own words, and even their own phraseology, so far as the English idiom allowed. My work consisted in gathering the materials distributed all over the wide domain of Rabbinic literature, classifying, sifting, and arranging them, and also in ascertaining clearly and stating in simple, direct terms the doctrines and theological concepts that they involved, in such a manner as to convey to the student a clear notion of the Rabbinic opinion of the doctrine under discussion. In cases where opinion differed, the varying views were produced, and so were inconsistencies pointed out, stating, however, when there was sufficient authority for doing so, what the prevailing opinion in the Synagogue was. Where such authority was lacking, it was assumed that the Synagogue allowed both opinions to stand, neither opinion containing the whole truth, and being in need of qualifications by the opposite opinion.

On the other hand, I made little use of such matter as may be described as mere legend and fancy, falling within the province of folk-lore and apocalypse rather than belonging to the domain of theology. These represent the chaff, an inevitable growth in the field of religion. Now and then a grain of truth may be detected in it, but as a rule the chaff serves more often to hide the grain of truth from sight. To the practised eye of the student, such passages appear as theological curiosities, either heedlessly repeated or surreptitiously inserted in the text. The works in which this chaff grew most exuberantly have a strong family likeness with certain Pseudepigrapha, which were a product, not of the Synagogue, but of the various sects hovering on the borderland of Judaism, on which they may have left some mark by a few stray passages finding their way even into the older Rabbinic literature. The Hebrew works, however, which are especially conspicuous for the affinity of their contents or the larger part of their contents with those Pseudepigrapha, are of a later date. They make their appearance under disguise, betraying sufficiently their origin by their bewildering contents as well as by their anachronisms. They were admitted into the Synagogue only under protest, so to speak. The authorities seem to have been baffled, some disowning them, whilst others are overawed by their very strangeness and apologise for their existence,—or, reinterpret them. The writings are thus of little help to the student of Rabbinic opinion, though they may be of service to the worker on the field of the Pseudepigrapha.

As really representative of such opinion, we can only take into account the Talmudic and the recognised Midrashic literature, or the great Midrashim. But even in these authoritative works we have first to separate all that is stray and peculiar of the nature just indicated, and to eliminate a great deal of polemical matter only uttered under provocation in the heat of controversy, and to subject the whole of it to the test of the religious consciousness of Israel.

This literature covers, as stated elsewhere, many centuries, and was produced in widely differing climes amid varying surroundings and ever-changing conditions, and was interrupted several times by great national catastrophes and by the rise of all sorts of sects and schisms.

This last circumstance—besides being productive of bitter polemics, as just hinted at—could not fail to create new theological values, as the modern phrase is, leading, for instance, to the emphasis upon the significance of the Law and even the Oral Law and other doctrinal points, which, though questioned by none, were never before stated with such distinctness and in such a challenging manner.

The influence of the historic events may perhaps be best illustrated by the literature bearing upon the belief in the advent of the Messiah. Whatever doubt there may be as to the high antiquity of this doctrine or as to the varying phases it passed through in the early stages of its history, no such uncertainty prevails as to the opinion held by the Rabbis with regard to it. This opinion can easily be ascertained from Rabbinic literature, which permits of no doubt that the belief in the advent of the Messiah in its general and main features was a firmly established doctrine of Rabbinic Judaism. The main outlines are given by Scripture and tradition, but it is history which furnishes the details. These appear sometimes in the form of apocalypses, reflecting the events of their age, whilst the prolonged suffering of Israel, and the brooding of the nation over the wrongs inflicted upon the people of God, have the unfortunate result that fancy and imagination busy themselves more with the anti-Messiah and the punishment awaiting him than with the Messiah and the bliss coming in his wake. To such an extent does this proceed that in some of these apocalypses the universalistic features of the Kingdom are almost obscured, although, in truth, Israel never abandoned them even amidst the worst distress.

Notwithstanding, however, all these excrescences which historic events contributed towards certain beliefs and the necessary mutations and changes of aspects involved in them, it should be noted that Rabbinic literature is, as far as doctrine and dogma are concerned, more distinguished by the consensus of opinion than by its dissensions. On the whole, it may safely be maintained that there is little in the dogmatic teachings of the Palestinian authorities of the first and second centuries to which, for instance, R. Ashi of the fifth and even R. Sherira of the tenth century, both leaders of Rabbinic opinion in Babylon, would have refused their consent, though the emphasis put on the one or the other doctrine may have differed widely as a result of changed conditions and surroundings. On the other hand, a careful study of the Agadic sayings, for instance, of R. Akiba and R. Meir of the second century, will sufficiently prove that there is little or nothing in the dicta of these great teachers which would have prevented them from subscribing to the same general theological beliefs that inspired the homilies contained in the Seder Elijah and the Agadath Bereshith compiled in the seventh or in the eighth century, if not much later. Indeed, many statements in these books appearing at the first glance as new can often be traced as mere amplifications of teachings occurring in some older collection of the second and third century in a less diffuse form.

It was in view of this fact that I did not consider it necessary to provide the quotations given from the Talmud and the Midrash with the date of their authors, assuming that as long as there is no evidence that they are in contradiction to some older or even contemporary opinion they may be regarded as expressive of the general opinion of the Synagogue. Such a treatment of the subject was, I thought, the more justified as it did not lie within the scope of this work to furnish the student with a history of Rabbinic theology, but rather, as already indicated, to give some comprehensive view of a group of theological subjects as thought out and taught by the Synagogue. It should be remembered that the field lay entirely barren until a comparatively recent date. Indeed, when I began to write on the subject there did not exist a single book or even essay from which I could derive any instruction or which could serve me as a model in the conception and construction of the work. Conditions have since considerably improved, and I have had occasion in the course of this book to gratefully refer to those who have rendered substantial contributions to this subject. With the great lack of preliminary studies and the absence of monographs on subjects of Rabbinic theology, a history of its development would thus be premature. Not only will the whole of the Agadic literature as well as the Targumin have to be carefully studied, but the Halachah also will have to be consulted, for this was very sensitive to all shades and changes in theological opinion, and in many cases reverberates with it. But what is mainly needed are good treatises on individual doctrines and theological terms based on primary sources and giving the necessary attention to detail.

The legitimate successors of the Talmud and the Midrash are the legal codices and the works of edification known as Books of Discipline (Sifre Mussar) of the Middle Ages, constituting the Halachah and the Agadah of post-Talmudic Judaism. Not only do they restore to us occasionally passages from ancient Rabbinic collections now lost to us, but they afford us some insight into the workings of Rabbinic opinion after Israel had, through the medium of the Arabic vernacular, been brought into contact with Greek thought, or what professed to be Greek thought, of different schools and had, for the first time perhaps, become really conscious of the obstacles on the path of belief. A few extracts from this literature are sometimes given in the text by way of illustration.

As a treasure-house of theological sentiment, we may regard the Piyutim, or the hymnological literature of the mediæval Synagogue, aptly described sometimes as a continuation or development of the Psalms and the ancient liturgy of the Synagogue. Nowhere, perhaps, are the teachings of the Synagogue in reference to the close relations between God and Israel and the permanency of the Covenant with the Fathers expressed with greater conviction and more depth than in the hymns recited in the Sabbaths between the Passover and the Feast of Weeks. Again, the doctrines as to the meaning of sin in its aspect of rebellion and its terrible consequences, the efficacy of repentance, and the helplessness of man to obtain pardon and reconciliation without assistance from heaven—all these doctrines receive nowhere a more emphatic expression both in strains of the most exalted joy and of the deepest humiliation than in the mediæval Synagogue compositions for the Penitential Days, especially for the Day of Atonement. This will be found to be the case with other doctrines, such as the inspiration of the Scriptures, the significance of the Commandments as a saving factor, which forms the theme of the Synagogue poetry for the Feast of Weeks, or the doctrine of the advent of the Messiah, and the restoration of Israel to the Holy Land, which constitutes the subject of elegies for the Ninth of Ab and the Consolation Sabbaths succeeding it.

It is true that these poetical compositions cannot be considered as representative of universal Rabbinic opinion, in the same measure as the Talmud and the Midrash. To a certain extent they enjoyed only local authority, each country having in addition to the common Prayer Book a liturgical collection of its own. The ritual of the Spanish Jews, for instance, contains but few compositions emanating from the Franco-German School, or even from their earlier models written in Palestine and Babylon. It is distinguished by the simplicity of its diction and its symmetrical form. It is, further, less cumulative of its epithets of the Deity, and is sparing in allusions to the Talmud and Midrash, whilst there is in it but a minimum of Angelology, which forms such a prominent feature in the sacred poetry of other schools, reflecting unmistakably the influence of the Chapters of the Chambers and similar mystical productions.

Such differences, however, vital as they may appear to the metaphysician, affect but slightly the main features of such doctrines as are above referred to and are discussed in the course of these pages. In these the consensus of opinion was maintained even after Aristotle became the sage of Jewish literature and the wisdom of the Greeks was discovered to be bordering on the path of the faith. Nor could it be otherwise. Starting from the same premises, such as the inspiration of the Scriptures, their binding authority upon every Jew, and fully admitting the claim of the Rabbis to be the only legitimate interpreters of these Scriptures,—much as the various schools differed in their definition of inspiration and in their method of eliminating isolated Rabbinic opinion,—and sharing in the same hope of the nation as it found expression in the doctrine of the advent of the Messiah,— much as they differed in the description of his person and the miraculous details accompanying his appearance,—they could not but arrive at the same general conclusions. Practically, they only differed to agree in the end. It was only in this way that it came to pass that Maimonides' résumé of the Creed became soon the object of numberless hymns accepted by the Synagogue at large, and even mystics wrote commentaries to it; whilst there were very few—perhaps none—of the rationalising school who would have had any scruples to read their prayers from the common Prayer Book used in Germany or France. If it was not exactly uniformity, the unity of Israel was well maintained—union of doctrines, of precepts, of promises.

It is one of the most interesting of religious phenomena to observe the essential unity that the Synagogue maintained, despite all antagonistic influences. Dispersed among the nations, without a national centre, without a synod to formulate its principles, or any secular power to enforce its decrees, the Synagogue found its home and harmony in the heart of a loyal and consecrated Israel.

There was no school of thought to which it was not exposed, no great philosophic or spiritual influence which did not reach into its life and is not reflected in its development. These foreign-born ideas were all thoroughly assimilated by the Synagogue, and mingled even with its devotion and contemplation. The hymn, Royal Crown, by R. Solomon b. Gabirol, in the Spanish ritual, and the Song of Unity, in the German ritual, both recited on the Day of Atonement, are sufficient evidence of this fact, apart from some customs and usages of non-Jewish origin, which were thoroughly converted to Judaism by the Synagogue in the process of time. Having gained an entrance by a process of natural selection and unconscious absorption, the power of Judaism was manifested in its obliteration of all that was strange and objectionable in such accretions, so strong were its digestive powers. But equally, the vitality of the Synagogue was manifested in what it eliminated and rejected as inconsistent with its existence. Whenever any influence, no matter by whom advanced or by whatever power maintained, developed a tendency that was contrary to a strict monotheism, or denied the binding character of the Torah, or aimed to destroy the unity and character and calling of Israel, although it may have gained currency for a time, the Synagogue finally succeeded in eliminating it as noxious to its very existence.

It is this body of Israel in which the unity of the Synagogue was and is still incorporate that I called occasionally as witness in some cases of religious sentiment wholly unknown to the outsider. I may as well state here that it was my knowledge of this Israel which gave the first impulse to these essays. Having been brought up among Jews who did live under the strict discipline of the Law and were almost exclusively nurtured on the spiritual food of the Talmud and Midrashim, and having had occasion thus to observe them for many years, both in their religious joys and in their religious sorrows, I felt quite bewildered at the theological picture drawn of Rabbinic Judaism by so many writers. I could not but doubt their statements and question their conclusions. These doubts were expressed to friends, who were at once affected more or less by my sceptical attitude and urged me to write down my thoughts on the subject, which in the course of time took shape in essays and lectures. The reader will, therefore, pardon if, in addition to the written evidence, I appeal also in a few cases to living testimony.

The foregoing remarks will suffice to prepare the reader for what he has to expect from this book and in what he will be disappointed. I have also prepared him for my point of view, which is further developed in the body of the book. I have only to warn the reader that this volume is by no means exhaustive of Rabbinic opinion on all theological subjects dealt with in Rabbinic literature. This book represents only some Aspects of Rabbinic Theology. Some doctrines, such as, for instance, Immortality, Resurrection, were only slightly touched upon; whilst others, as the Eschatology of the Rabbis with regard to the Day of Judgement, Eternal Punishment, and similar topics, hardly found any place in this volume. The guiding motive in the choice of subjects was in general a selection of those large and important principles in which Rabbinic thought and Israel's faith were most clearly represented and which I found were most in need of elucidation, because so often misunderstood and misinterpreted. If God gives me life and strength, I may perhaps one day write more aspects of Rabbinic theology.

As to the nature of the literature with which I had to deal, the reader will find the necessary information about it in the Introductory Chapter. I desire only to add that I did not wish to multiply references in my Notes when the additional references brought no further information with them. Both the Talmud and the Midrashim are now provided on the margin or the foot of the page with ample references to parallel passages, and the student who is anxious to farther pursue the subject can easily turn to the original sources with the aid of the references given in the Notes. I have also purposely avoided in my transliteration of Hebrew words or names all bewildering devices for representing the actual sound of the word, contenting myself with the ordinary Roman alphabet, in spite of its shortcomings.

In conclusion, I wish to thank Dr. Alexander Marx, Professor of History in the Jewish Theological Seminary of America, who prepared the list of Abbreviations for me. I am also indebted to Mr. Joseph B. Abrahams, Clerk of the Seminary office, who was always at my call during the progress of this work. I can further hardly express sufficiently my obligations to my friend Rabbi Charles Isaiah Hoffman, of Newark, N.J., for his painstaking reading of the proofs and forever so many helpful suggestions, by which this volume has profited. And last, but not least, I have to record my special obligations to my friend, Miss Henrietta Szold, who likewise read the proof, and made many a valuable suggestion. I am particularly grateful to her for the excellent Index she has prepared to this work, which will, I am convinced, be appreciated by every reader of this volume.

S. S.

CONTENTS

I. INTRODUCTORY

II. GOD AND THE WORLD

III. GOD AND ISRAEL

IV. ELECTION OF ISRAEL

V. THE KINGDOM OF GOD (INVISIBLE)

VI. THE VISIBLE KINGDOM (UNIVERSAL)

VII. THE KINGDOM OF GOD (NATIONAL)

VIII. THE LAW

IX. THE LAW AS PERSONIFIED IN THE LITERATURE

X. THE TORAH IN ITS ASPECT OF LAW (MIZWOTH)

XI. THE JOY OF THE LAW

XII. THE ZACHUTH OF THE FATHERS. IMPUTED RIGHTEOUSNESS AND IMPUTED SIN

XIII. THE LAW OF HOLINESS AND THE LAW OF GOODNESS

XIV. SIN AS REBELLION

XV. THE EVIL YEZER: THE SOURCE OF REBELLION

XVI. MAN'S VICTORY BY THE GRACE OF GOD, OVER THE EVIL YEZER CREATED BY GOD

XVII. FORGIVENESS AND RECONCILIATION WITH GOD

XVIII. REPENTANCE: MEANS OF RECONCILIATION

I

INTRODUCTORY

MY object in choosing the title Some Aspects of Rabbinic Theology is to indicate that from the following chapters there must not be expected either finality or completeness. Nor will there be made any attempt in the following pages at that precise and systematic treatment which we are rightly accustomed to claim in other fields of scientific inquiry. I have often marvelled at the certainty and confidence with which Jewish legalism, Jewish transcendentalism, Jewish self-righteousness, are delineated in our theological manuals and histories of religion; but I have never been able to emulate either quality. I have rather found, when approaching the subject a little closer, that the peculiar mode of old Jewish thought, as well as the unsatisfactory state of the documents in which this thought is preserved, are against the certain, and urge upon the student caution and sobriety. In these introductory paragraphs I shall try to give some notion of the difficulties that lie before us.

To begin with the difficulties attaching to the unsatisfactory state of Rabbinic documents. A prominent theologian has, when referring to the Rabbis, declared that one has only to study the Mishnah to see that it was not moral or spiritual subjects which engrossed their attention, but the characteristic hair-splitting about ceremonial trifles. There is an appearance of truth in this statement. The Mishnah, which was compiled about the beginning of the third century of the C.E., consists of sixty-one (or sixty-three) tractates, of which only one, known by the title of The Chapters of the Fathers, deals with moral and spiritual matters in the narrower sense of these terms. Still this is not the whole truth, for there are also other tractates, occupying about one-third of the whole Mishnah, which deal with the civil law, the procedure of the criminal courts, the regulation of inheritance, laws regarding property, the administration of oaths, marriage, and divorce. All these topics, and many similar ones relating to public justice and the welfare of the community as the Rabbis understood it, are certainly not to be branded as ceremonial trifles; and if the kingdom of God on earth means something more than the mystical languor of the individual, it is difficult to see on what ground they can be excluded from the sphere of religion. But, apart from this consideration—for it seems that theologians are not yet agreed in their answer to the question whether it is this world, with all its wants and complications, which should be the subject for redemption, or the individual soul, with its real and imaginary longings—there runs, parallel with this Mishnah, a vast literature, known under the name of Agadah, scattered over a multitude of Talmudical and Midrashic works, the earliest of which were compiled even before or about the time of the Mishnah, and the latest of which, while going down as far as the tenth or even the eleventh century, still include many ancient elements of Rabbinic thought. In these compilations it will be found that the minds of the so-called triflers were engrossed also with such subjects as God, and man's relation to God; as righteousness and sin, and the origin of evil; as suffering and repentance and immortality; as the election of Israel, Messianic aspirations, and with many other cognate subjects lying well within the moral and spiritual sphere, and no less interesting to the theologian than to the philosopher.

It is these Talmudic and Midrashic works, to which I should like to add at once the older Jewish liturgy, which will be one of the main sources of the material for the following chapters. Now I do not want to enter here into bibliographical details, which may be found in any good history of Jewish literature. But it may have been noticed that I spoke of compilations; and here a difficulty comes in. For a compilation presupposes the existence of other works, of which the compiler makes use. Thus there must have been some Rabbinic work or works composed long before our Mishnah, and perhaps as early as 30 C.E.¹ This work, or collection, would clearly have provided a better means for a true understanding of the period when Rabbinism was still in an earlier stage of its formation, than our present Mishnah of 200 C.E. Is it not just possible that many a theological feature, characteristic of the earlier Rabbis, found no place in the Mishnah, either because of its special design or through the carelessness or fancy of its compiler, or through some dogmatic consideration unknown to us? Is it not likely that the teaching of the Apostle Paul, the antinomian consequences of which became so manifest during the second century, brought about a growing prejudice against all allegoric explanations of the Scriptures,² or that the authorities refused to give them a prominent place in the Mishnah, which was intended by its compiler to become the great depository of the Oral Law? But whatever the cause, the effect is that we are almost entirely deprived of any real contemporary evidence from the most important period in the history of Rabbinic theology. The Psalms of Solomon may, for want of a better title, be characterized as the Psalms of the Pharisees; but to derive from them a Rabbinic theology is simply absurd. They have not left the least trace in Jewish literature, and it is most probable that none of the great authorities we are acquainted with in the Talmud had ever read a single line of them, or even had heard their name. The same is the case with other Apocryphal and Apocalyptic works, for which Rabbinism is often made responsible. However strange it may seem, the fact remains that whilst these writings left a lasting impress on Christianity, they contributed—with the exception, perhaps, of the Book of Ecclesiasticus—little or nothing towards the formation of Rabbinic thought. The Rabbis were either wholly ignorant of their very existence, or stigmatised them as fabulous, or external (a milder expression in some cases for heretical), and thus allowed them to exert no permanent influence upon Judaism.

Passing from the Mishnah to the Talmud proper (the Gemara) and to the Midrash, the same fact meets us again. They, too, are only compilations, and from the defects of this, their fundamental quality, we frequently suffer.

There is, for instance, the interesting subject of miracles, which plays such an important part in the history of every religion. Despite the various attempts made by semi-rationalists to minimise their significance, the frequent occurrence of miracles will always remain, both for believers and sceptics, one of the most important tests of the religion in question; to the former as a sign of its superhuman nature, to the latter as a proof of its doubtful origin. The student is accordingly anxious to see whether the miraculous formed an essential element of Rabbinic Judaism. Nor are we quite disappointed when we turn over the pages of the Talmud with this purpose in view. There is hardly any miracle recorded in the Bible for which a parallel might not be found in the Rabbinic literature. The greatest part of the third chapter of the Tractate Taanith, called also the Chapter of the Saints, is devoted to specimens of supernatural acts performed by various Rabbis. But miracles can only be explained by more miracles, by regular epidemics of miracles. The whole period which saw them must become the psychological phenomenon to be explained, rather than the miracle-workers themselves. But of the Rabbinical miracles we could judge with far greater accuracy if, instead of the few specimens still preserved to us, we were in possession of all those stories and legends which once circulated about the saints of Israel in their respective periods.³

Another problem which a fuller knowledge of these ancient times might have helped us to solve is this: With what purpose were these miracles worked, and what were they meant to prove? We are told in 1 Corinthians (1 22), that "the Jews ask for signs as the