Colored Billy Yank

By Walter Urbanek

Racism and abusive oppression have deep roots in the United States and other countries worldwide. In the seventh century, caravans began transporting black cargoes across the Sahara to markets in Southern Europe and the Middle East. As the demand for slaves expanded from the islands in the Mediterranean, to islands off the coast of West Afr

• Language: English
• Publisher: The Media Reviews
• Release date: Jun 1, 2022
• ISBN: 9781958091180

Book preview

cover.jpg

Colored Billy Yank

Walter Urbanek

Copyright © 2022 Walter Urbanek.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any electronic or mechanical means, including information storage and retrieval systems, without permission in writing from the author and publisher, except by reviewers, who may quote brief passages in a review.

ISBN: 978-1-958091-19-7 (Paperback Edition)

ISBN: 978-1-958091-20-3 (Hardcover Edition)

ISBN: 978-1-958091-18-0 (E-book Edition)

Book Ordering Information

The Media Reviews

99 Wall Street #2870

New York, NY, 10005 USA

www.themediareviews.com

[e-mail]

[phone]

Printed in the United States of America

Contents

Book Review

Prologue

Chapter 1: A Warrior Is Born

Chapter 2: The Peculiar Institution

Chapter 3: Goodbye Africa

Chapter 4: Life Tween Decks: Hell, on Earth

Chapter 5: Eagle Crest

Chapter 6: Jumpin’ the Broom

Chapter 7: Hurting and Freedom

Chapter 8: Free at Last

Chapter 9: Sharpsburg, Maryland

Chapter 10: The Calm

Chapter 11: Private Thomas Meyer

Chapter 12: Colored Troopers

Chapter 13: Racism and White Supremacy

Chapter 14: Company E

Chapter 15: Forward March!

Chapter 16: Trial by Fire

Chapter 17: Joshua!

Chapter 18: Hari and Henri

Chapter 19: Appomattox: The Guns Fell Silent

Chapter 20: Reunited

Chapter 21: Buffalo Soldier

Epilogue

Book Review

Article:

Teachers are the reason why airplanes fly, computers’ program, ballets are danced, novels are written, cancers researched, lawsuits won, skyscrapers built, and art decorates refrigerator doors. Life’s biggest, boldest, brightest ideas—life’s honors, achievements, and accomplishments occur because somewhere, sometime, someone, touched our lives—and it all began with a teacher.

Walter Urbanek is a retired Master Teacher and Marine Corps veteran. After completing his tour of duty with the Fleet Marine Force, he returned to college and earned his degree. In 1966, he joined the faculty at Edgar High School in Wisconsin and thirty-three years later retired; he felt honored to have taught so many remarkable young minds. His core belief was to help students realize their self-worth, gain confidence, believe in themselves, become aware of their aptitudes and aspirations, and develop critical thinking skills. His teaching skills were recognized at the local, state, and national levels: Certified Master Teacher, Wisconsin Social Studies Teacher of the Year (1997), National Social Studies Teacher of the Year (1998), Time Magazine Education Advisory Board member, and recipient of a number of scholarship awards. His quest for knowledge motivated him to participate in graduate programs or travel; he was away from home, every summer from 1986-1999.

As a result of numerous military and educational opportunities, Urbanek has visited forty-five nations in Europe, Asia, Africa, North America, and South America where he studied and did research on multiple topics. He visited slave forts in Sierra Leone, The Gambia, and Senegal, visited the Pyramids at Giza, sailed the Nile to Luxor, Karnak, and Thebes, toured the tombs of the Pharaoh Seti and King Tut in the Valley of the Kings, and wandered through the remnants of Great Zimbabwe. Other places of interest were: the Anne Frank Annex in Amsterdam, death camps at Auschwitz and Dachau, Peace Park in Hiroshima, Panmunjom, the American Cemetery at Normandy, Versailles, Victoria Falls, and Timbuktu to name a few.

Racism and abusive oppression have deep roots in the United States and other countries worldwide. In the seventh century, caravans began transporting black cargoes across the Sahara to markets in Southern Europe and the Middle East. As the demand for slaves expanded from the islands in the Mediterranean, to islands off the coast of West Africa, to islands in the Caribbean and the Southern United States, people involved in the trade had to come up with strategies to justify and restrain the slaves and the system. The slave traders spread the belief they were saving the slaves from themselves. To control the slaves, stereotypes were developed which said the African natives were children, inferior, lazy, and were incapable of caring for themselves. From church pulpits, clergy used the Bible to justify the social labels or categories. Harsh punishments were used to control the behavior of the black field hands: beatings, whippings, branding, hanging, burning alive, amputations, etc… Walter Urbanek’s Colored Billy Yank narrates the life of a young Mandinka warrior kidnapped from his village in West Africa, his incarceration in slave forts, the horrors of the Middle Passage, his ordeals and abuses on a tobacco plantation in Virginia, his enlistment in the Union Army following the Emancipation Proclamation and his involvement in the American Civil War where he was awarded the Congressional Medal of Honor for valor and bravery. Dominant feelings, beliefs, and aspirations of the black characters were the quest for equality, wish for freedom, and desire for respect. Urbanek captures the feelings and emotions of the Mandinka warrior to provide the reader with vivid descriptions of what it was really like being an African captive and slave.

Colored Billy Yank is a strongly recommended book. It narrates the atrocities that Africans were forced to endure, narrating a boy’s life starting from the day of his birth. The author includes rich details on Africa’s culture and the traditions the enslaved people developed for themselves while working in the fields. One interesting scene is this excerpt, The spirituals they sang were in the call and response format. The leaders sang a line of text and the chorus responded; the sound resonated through the area where slaves were congregated. While singing a spiritual, slaves clapped, stomped, jumped, shouted, and exhibited symbols of religious ecstasy. The vocal spirituals symbolized strength, endurance, and innovation; they were used to express faith, emotion, a celebration of life, and the hope of escaping the plantation and achieving freedom, where one can imagine the event with vivid pictures and colors. This part is only one of the many traditions that Walter Urbanek included in his book.

Walter Urbanek has an undeniable talent for painting scenes with words and making them move with great precision. The graphic scenes in parts of the book, attempt to recreate the realities of slave life on a plantation: the field hands were considered property rather than people and had no rights. This led to violent behavior at the hands of the plantation owner, his sons, and his staff. The vivid details in the book allow the reader to visualize what is happening and make them curious about the next plot and even how the book might conclude. Many people believe the negative treatment of all people of color must end. Urbanek did not hold back and portrayed the harsh every day of what being a slave on a tobacco plantation was really like. It is an eye-opener that gives the reader a glimpse into what kidnapped Africans really and truly experienced as victims of racism, white supremacy, discrimination, and abusive treatment.

The graphic and emotional nature of some chapters may elicit an emotive or sensitive response from some readers based on strong language and graphic descriptions which were used to convey the physical and emotional suffering endured by the victims of the plantation system. The book focuses on the experiences of a Mandinka warrior at Eagle Crest Plantation, his escape and enlistment in the Union Army, and the contributions African-American soldiers made in helping to defeat the armies of the Confederate States of America. Colored Billy Yank illustrates an appreciation for all men and women who have served in the ranks of our military. Walter Urbanek reminds us that each and every American has the right to be recognized as an individual, removing aspects of racism, discrimination, and prejudices against people who have different racial characteristics must be paramount.

Racism, discrimination, and bigotry continue to divide our nation. Let us work tirelessly to make Americans, people of peace, and reach out to the victimized that have a history of being treated unfairly. Colored Billy Yank enables everyone to understand the hardships that African-Americans, Hispanic-Americans, Asian-Americans, and Native-Americans face in their daily lives; we must adopt moral lessons into our daily lives. Colored Billy Yank is a must-read book for anyone who seeks to comprehend the roots of the current social problems that curse our nation. Striving for a tolerant nation starts with understanding the evils that have been a blight on America since 1619. To comprehend, we need to understand the traditions of slavery and the ills of the plantation system.

Prologue

THE FIRST AFRICAN SLAVES arrived at Jamestown, Virginia on August 20, 1619 aboard a British warship. The influx of the twenty captives set the stage for the use of slave labor in North America.

Between 1501-1867 approximately 12.5 million slaves disembarked in the United States, the brutality of the institution ultimately led to the bloodiest war in our nation’s history. When blood began to flow during the Civil War, there were 4 million slaves in the South working on tobacco, cotton, rice, sugar and hemp plantations.

Since 1776 millions of men and women have left the security and tranquility of their homes and family, and answered the call to defend their values, beliefs and way of life. During the Civil War, 1861-1865, Billy Yank and Johnny Reb volunteered based on long-held beliefs and deeply rooted differences. Basically, the northerners enlisted to preserve the Union and end the ills of the plantation system; Confederate soldiers volunteered to protect their homes and families, for independence and self-determination which would allow them to retain the institution of slavery, their culture and the traditional doctrines of white supremacy and racism. When the fighting ended the problems of racism did not disappear. The KKK, segregation, discrimination and the Jim Crow Laws became the norm; beatings, lynching’s, murder and arson became tools used against the African-Americans. Many historians believe the Civil War did not end until the Civil Rights Act was passed in 1964.

The American Civil War is more than just the accounts of the bloodletting at Bull Run, Shiloh, Antietam, Gettysburg, Vicksburg and Petersburg. The insurrection is a drama of cause and effect and how the war changed our national consciousness.

Billy Yank and Johnny Reb’s motivation to fight was based on long-held beliefs and deeply rooted differences. The first two years of the war, the momentum was in favor of the Confederacy because the Rebs were fighting to protect their families and homes while the Federal commanding generals were completely inept (McDowell, McClellan, Pope, Burnside and Hooker). During 1861-1862, the southerners enjoyed major victories at First and Second Bull Run, Fredericksburg and Chancellorsville. When the fighting shifted to a war of attrition, the momentum shifted in favor of the North: at the time of the bombardment of Fort Sumter in Charleston Harbor, there were 22 million whites in the North and 5 million whites south of the Mason-Dixon Line. Ships carrying cargoes of immigrants arrived in northern ports almost daily. By the time of Petersburg, there were no substitutes or reinforcements available to replenish the depleted ranks of the Army of Northern Virginia.

A defining moment of the war was the signing of the Emancipation Proclamation by President Lincoln following the Battle of Antietam. One provision of the announcement permitted African-Americans to serve in the ranks of the Union army or navy. The Negroes believed military service would be an opportunity to allow them to be recognized as equals, be accepted as men rather than boys and prove their right to be somewhat equal to the whites.

Many black freemen and former slaves put their name or X on the enlistment contract, black soldiers would eventually make up twelve percent of the union army: 186,017 volunteers which filled the ranks of 120 black infantry regiments. Two other telling statistics that help give a clearer picture of the contributions of black soldiers are: 40,000 black soldiers died while serving in the Union army (a larger number died from disease), twenty-one black soldiers were awarded the Congressional Medal of Honor for bravery, courage, valor and for performing feats above and beyond the call of duty. The most famous black unit was the 54th Massachusetts who gained fame and glory when they assaulted Fort Wagner located on the coast of South Carolina. Although they failed to achieve their objective, their valor and bravery was recognized. They advanced across the beach under withering artillery fire, in spite of heavy losses they continued moving forward toward their objective. Inside Fort Wagner they were stopped by a row of artillery pieces loaded with cannister shot.

When black soldiers enlisted, they were not accepted by all white soldiers. Instead, they were continually exposed to the same racism, name calling and taunts they experienced in the plantation world. Instead of being trained for combat assignments, many were used primarily to perform manual labor. The black units were determined to fight for their rights. Once given the opportunity to participate in combat, they proved their fighting skills. White soldiers quickly realized that black units were successful and would fight, they became more cooperative and supportive of their efforts. It was a step in the right direction, but the black veterans still had to deal with the same racial attitudes and stereotypes when they were released from active duty.

Although the Civil War ended over 150 years ago, the African-American, Asian-American, European-Americans, Hispanic-Americans and Native-American communities continue to deal with the same social ills that resulted in 623,000 soldiers making the ultimate sacrifice to protect America.

Chapter One

A Warrior Is Born

IN THE WEST AFRICAN Kingdom of Niumi, in the village of Juffure, located on the north bank of the Gambibolongo River (modern Gambia River), a Mandinka wife was in labor going through the process of welcoming a new family member into the world. It was a dark humid night; the sky was filled with twinkling bright stars, the sounds of a woman giving birth could be heard outside the hut. Suddenly, the sun’s rays began darting across the landscape, cancelling the darkness and revealing a panorama depicting many aspects of husbandry: fields of vegetables, peanuts and tubers such as casava, small herds of goats and horses and rice patties.

Binna, second wife of Sila Ajaye, was birthing her third child, she was being assisted by members of her extended family. The women huddled near offering advice and encouragement while Sila paced back and forth outside the small hut, showing concern for his wife. The contractions became more frequent and intense; Binna breathed deeply and pushed trying to force the baby through the birth canal. Finally, the birth was complete and the baby, a boy, was born. A midwife picked up the baby and severed the lifeline between the child and the mother and bathed the new arrival with a damp cotton cloth. Sila rushed to Binna’s side, held her hand and whispered, Binna that was hard work; we now have three sons. Praise be to Allah, for this miracle of life.

The cries of the newborn, emanating from the thatched roofed hut, announced the arrival of the newest addition to the village of Juffure and the Mandinka Nation. With clinched fists, the infant began flailing his arms and legs while announcing his arrival. Usually, a child was not named until the eighth day, but Sila picked up his son, carried him outside and held him up to the heavens, announcing, Allah akbar, observe the only thing greater than you. Behold, I give you, Butu Ajaye, may he grow to be a great warrior and serve you. Allah akbar!

When Sila returned carrying the babe-in-arms, Binna nursed him and secured the newborn to her back, using a rectangular cloth, tied in several places. She departed the compound to work in a nearby rice paddy. She would nurse her son and carry him on her back up to two years or until she brought her next child into the world.

Butu grew up in a melded family where he learned rules and roles. Sila had two wives and children with each. The wives lived in separate huts with their children. Binna lived with her three sons: Mohammed, Jaju and Butu; Binta shared her shelter with two daughters and a son. Sila moved from hut-to-hut spending nights with each wife and their children. The two wives were not competitors and did not compete for Sila’s favor or affection. The two relationships were combined into a single family; each wife was a mother to all the children. They shared numerous duties: cultivated and harvested food, prepared meals, sewed tie-dyed material into clothing, washed clothes in the river, made items from leather and cared for the sick. They also assisted members of their expanded family when support and assistance were required.

The function and responsibility of females was to bring new life into the world, manage a household and perform physical labor, there was a distinct division of labor between men and women. When men became warriors, they spent their day hunting, fishing, drinking palm wine, sitting in the shade under a tree telling stories and laughing or watching women perform physical labor. During the planting season, men toiled alongside the women sowing rice, peanuts, corn, cassava, eggplant, millet, yams and other foods.

Butu grew up in a structured and sheltered environment. His older brothers were a major influence during his formative years.

They taught him skills he would need as a warrior: discipline, respect for elders, loyalty, cooperation and devotion to a cause. Butu also had two friends who were born in the same year and were the same age: Aziz and Yahya. When Butu wasn’t with his brother’s doing chores or chasing one another around the compound, he was with his young colleagues playing games and getting into all sorts of mischief.

The Imam of Juffure decided that young boys in their seventh season would attend the Koranic school (madrasah) and begin learning the tenets of Islam. Because the mosque could not physically accommodate the number of boys in the age-group, they attended lessons during the day, and returned to their home in the evening. Early the following morning, they returned to the mosque to continue their education and indoctrination.

The boys entered the mosque, sat on the floor, and were immediately intimidated by the imam. The cleric glared at the students, instilling anxiety and fear in each. Yahya whispered to Butu, I want to leave. I don’t like it here. Butu responded, You must stay. Just then the imam picked up a leather strap, walked to where the boys were sitting and proceeded to strike each several times. Both cried as pain dashed through their bodies. The imam went into a verbal tirade, screaming and shaking his finger at each youth. When completed he returned to his cushion and resumed his diatribe of threats and intimidation.

The cleric was obsessed with imparting religious dogma and philosophy. He was an elderly imam who believed play and fun were a waste of time, demanding the students totally focus on the teachings of Islam, this was his preoccupation. The learning environment was dominated by harsh discipline, boys were beaten with a leather strap, a switch or an unraveled piece of rope when they could not answer a question or recite the assigned verse from the Koran.

Butu and his classmates learned Arabic, the teachings and doctrines of the Koran and the achievements of Mohammed, they studied and focused solely on religious catechism and dogma. Each pupil was given a board to write on and had to memorize whatever they inscribed on it. During class, each learner penned what they were directed on the board, usually a verse from the Holy Book. The next day the imam called each boy to him. They were directed to recite what was written on their board or the stanza from the Koran they were directed to memorize. If they could not recite the passage correctly, they were punished, being physically beaten or chained in place. This was a traumatic experience for students who could not complete the task.

Butu felt empathy for Yahya because he was punished every day. While walking to the mosque in the early morning, he tried to help his friend by rehearsing what he had to recite. It did not help because Yahya could not placate the demands of the imam. When Yahya was punished tears ran down Butu’s cheeks, he felt deep sadness for his friend, but there was no way he could help. Finally, the nightmare of the madrasah ended. The boys reverted to the life they enjoyed; smiles, laughter, jokes and teasing returned to their daily routine.

The years passed, Butu grew physically and emotionally, he learned more about his culture and was assigned additional responsibilities. One task was taking the family goats to the savannah where they would graze on the lush vegetation. While the herd was browsing, Butu’s primary responsibility was to protect them from attack by a lion, leopard or hyenas.

The elders of the Mandinka community decided that all males born in a specific age group would undergo manhood training, also known as the rite of passage, when adolescent males became warriors and young girls were prepared for marriage and motherhood. Fathers began whispering to other patriarchs about the secret event that involved their son. Everyone in the village and surrounding area knew what was going to transpire except the initiates in the age-group, who were designated to undergo tutoring which would transform them from children to young men and women. The initiates were chosen at the onset of puberty.

The rite of passage was a cultural and ritual ceremony, lasting 5-6 months, where males and females were separately educated, trained and transitioned from adolescence to adulthood. Each gender was kidnapped and taken to a place of secrecy where they were inculcated with the beliefs and skills needed to be a warrior and husband or wife and mother. The inductees were schooled in expectations, traditions, taboos and social responsibilities.

According to plan, Sila took Butu for a walk in the night, the stars and moon lit the sky and landscape. When they reached a designated place, several men rushed from the shadows. They tackled Butu, knocking him to the ground, placed a cloth hood over his head and tied his hands. The teenager struggled and screamed for his father to intervene and rescue him: Father, help me; please do not let these people take me. Please help me…father! When his protector did not respond, Butu began to tremble; he feared he was captured by slave traders. A wave of terror swept through his body, he felt he would never see his family, village and companions again. The captors placed a rope around his neck and led him away through the darkness, no one uttered a sound. Butu was frightened; he had no idea what was happening, where he was being taken or what would be his fate. He was shaking and wanted to cry, he feared he might be killed and eaten. He was deeply troubled about the fate of his father, wondering if he was safe, incapacitated or dead. He wanted to cry, but realized showing fear was a sign of weakness; he found new strength and was determined to remain strong and resilient; he would adapt and do what was expected.

After several hours, the march came to a halt. Butu was directed to sit; he was instructed to remain silent and motionless, the hood remained over his head preventing him from observing what was taking place in the surrounding area. He was overcome with anxiety; he felt deep concern and alarm not knowing what happened to his father. There was nothing he could do except follow the dictates of his abductors. For some time, he heard commotion as more captives arrived, he couldn’t see but he could hear the ruckus. He wondered what was occurring and what would happen next?

Finally, elders began moving among the abducted adolescents, untying the hoods and removing them. Butu scanned the area looking for his father, he did not find him. He recognized some boys from Juffure and then saw Aziz and Yahya. He felt a sense of relief and jubilation because whatever was going to transpire, he would not have to experience it alone or with unfamiliar people.

A tall muscular elder stepped into the center of a marked off arena; all eyes were focused on him. He introduced himself as Mumba, and explained they were there to undergo manhood training, Everything that will happen to you has happened to your father and grandfather and will happen to your sons. This is part of our Mandinka tradition. You came here as boys and will leave as men and warriors, only the bravest and physically fit will be allowed to become warriors. If you fail this trial, you will not be allowed to marry, acquire wealth and make critical decisions, your life will be plagued by shame and dishonor. You will look like a man but will be treated as a child the rest of your life; you will be mocked and ridiculed. You will forever be a child!

Manhood training was like military boot camp. The elders were drill instructors who taught, prodded, drilled and disciplined each candidate. Their objective was to create a new identity for each aspirant, instilling physical endurance, discipline and mental toughness. The purpose was to renovate each candidate from being a fragile adolescent into a powerful adult capable of performing feats of bravery. Over the training cycle, all candidates were broken down physically and emotionally, and then transformed into the mold of strong men and brave fighters. The elders used intimidation, coercion and punishment to bring about the desired changes in behavior; they pushed the candidates to the limits of their talents, abilities and endurance.

The main objective of the training program was to break each boy’s spirit down to nothing, then rebuild each candidate into a productive member of society. To achieve this, elders focused on the actions of each candidate during an activity. They yelled, screamed, harassed, and bullied each initiate, demanding they give maximum effort and remain focused on the task; they wanted to instill confidence, pride and determination in the neophyte warriors.

Mumba stood with his clinched fists on his hips and his legs spread apart. He stared at the boys and challenged each, requesting that someone step forward and confront him in the wrestling ring. The boys looked down not wanting to make eye contact. Butu had wrestled his brothers so he felt confident he could compete against the elder, after all, he was an old man. He raised his hand and when recognized got up and stepped to the middle of the circle. The elder asked, Who are you? The youth answered. I be Butu, son of Sila, from the village of Juffure. The wrestler asked again, No, who are you? Once again, the youth answered, I be Butu Ajaye. When the elder could not get him to say what he wanted he directed, Let’s wrestle. Butu charged the elder, hoping to tackle him and drive him to the ground. The wrestler avoided the charge, grabbed the youth and flipped him in the air to the ground. Butu gave a loud grunt as the air was forced from his lungs. He stood over the youth with his hands on his hips and asked again, Who are you?’ Butu got up and charged again with the same result, he lay gasping for breath. Again, the same question was asked and the same answer given. This repeated itself several more times until Butu realized what the elder wanted him to admit, I be a boy; you be a man." Once the point was made the elder began coaching and teaching the other boys fighting moves. The beginners then practiced the moves on one another as elders circulated among the pairs, coaching and offering advice and encouragement.

After a demanding day of physical activity, the boys were divided into small groups. They were fed a Spartan meal of cassava paste and peanut stew. Each group was then led to a hut where they would sleep on the ground. When the elders were gone the boys began talking. Yahya leaned over to Butu and spoke softly, That elder wrestler almost killed you; he kicked the shit out of you. I thought you was goin’ to die. Butu smiled and answered, "What you be talkin’ about, one more charge and I would have had him just where I wanted him. The boys laughed and teased Butu. Finally, exhausted from the day’s activities, the boys fell into a deep sleep. The rest was short lived as they were awakened at first light and the rigorous training recommenced.

The strict regimentation between elders and initiates never wavered, the elders remained strict, demanding maximum effort and discipline from each participant. They were always meticulous, stern and persistent, they never wavered. Slowly confidence and self-esteem replaced doubt and fear. The trainees began acting like young men rather than boys.

Each day brought a new set of challenges: strenuous activities, competitions and lessons covering a multitude of topics like the role of being a husband, father and warrior. They were also drilled over and over on military tactics and fighting skills: throwing a spear, use of a dagger and sword, use of a shield, shooting arrows and hand-to-hand combat. Their expertise was honed until each would-be-warrior learned to react automatically rather than having to think what they needed to do.

Days turned into weeks and weeks into months. Slowly the program began winding down as its goals reached fruition. There remained one procedure that needed to be performed for manhood training to conclude. The terminating activity was the circumcision of each participant except the boys who failed manhood training.

Circumcision was the most significant ritual of the rite of passage: the surgical removal of the foreskin from a male’s penis. The procedure was performed by an elder using a special ceremonial knife with dual blades. The boys stood in a single line. An elder approached each candidate and ritual cleansing took place, they sang an incantation and shook a plant over each. Another followed and dabbed a white paste on the tip of his penis to help reduce the pain. He then used the ceremonial knife to sever and remove the foreskin. The boy had to be strong to endure the horrifying agony. They could not show fear or cry out. To do so brought shame and dishonor to their family and themselves. They would forevermore carry the stigma of cowardice and would never be allowed to have wives and father children; they would incessantly remain an outcast.

Butu stood in line thinking about his fate. He felt anxious; he had a gnawing feeling in his stomach because he had been fasting for three days to purge his body of impurities. He stood rigid, his heart raced with anticipation and fear. His respiration accelerated, his eyes burned as sweat ran down his forehead and he began to tremble. Finally, the shaman stepped in front of him; Butu looked straight forward anticipating the worst possible scenario.

The shaman began shaking a plant and tapping him on the shoulders, chest and arms while chanting an incantation. Butu intuited what was coming next. He clinched his fists, closed his eyes, curled his toes and stood frozen; his breathing and pulse spiked as he anticipated a sudden rush of pain. The elder lifted his organ and using a small stick smeared white paste on the tip to help deaden the pain.

After a few moments, the elder gripped the ceremonial knife and began excising the foreskin. The pain multiplied and jetted through his body, he held his breathe while screaming internally…. Ahhhhh! The pain was intense and overwhelming: it shot up to his shoulders and down his arms, it darted down his legs. Butu stood rigid and shaking, he knew he had to remain strong and upright. When the foreskin was detached Butu sensed something warm and sticky running down his legs. He felt faint and thought he would pass out. Two elders stepped forward, grabbed him to keep him from falling and assisted him to the hut where he slept. He was incapacitated for several days. The elders cared for him until he was healed enough to care for himself. After two weeks, the trauma healed enough to resume normal activity.

Finally, manhood training reached its conclusion. The new adults and warriors prepared to return to their village where they would be welcomed as men, warriors and champions. They walked in single file and made a triumphant return to Juffure. This was a festive occasion as people celebrated; there was singing, dancing, music and food. Sila welcomed Butu home. He let him know he was proud of his success. Butu’s life would change dramatically; he was a man and could make decisions affecting his life.

Binna waited for her son to enter the hut so she could greet him, hold him tight and welcome him home. When Butu entered he gave her a condescending look, which crushed her spirit. Meekly, she told him to gather his sleeping mat, bowl, cup and spoon, clothes and anything else that was his. In a terse voice he responded, I know what is mine and I know I can no longer live here. As he spoke, Binna adopted a submissive manner, avoiding looking at him and speaking in a subservient voice. While away Sila, with the help of other extended family members, built him his own hut on the edge of the village. When Butu picked up his belongings Binna, with tears running down her cheeks, rushed to him and gave him a hug goodbye; she held him tight not wanting to let go. The new adult remarked, You have always been a good mother. Two men cannot live in the same hut. I must leave. He left the hut, stepping away from his previous life where he had love and security and began striding into his new existence characterized by uncertainty and not having a mother to direct and influence his behavior.

Chapter Two

The Peculiar Institution

THE ROOTS OF SLAVERY penetrate deep into the evolution of the human race. Since prehistoric time man has kidnapped men and women from neighboring villages and forced prisoners-of-war into involuntary servitude; the captives worked as slaves in the service of others: as domestics, construction workers, field hands on large landed estates and as miners. Since the beginning of time, slavery has been accepted as a political, social and economic tradition. The brutal tradition has been practiced throughout the world and continues to endure in the twenty-first century.

During extended periods of war, prisoners were plentiful and available at cheap prices. When the fighting concluded, the supply of captives diminished due to high mortality caused by brutality and neglect; as the supply declined the ever-increasing demand for workers amplified. People began looking for and using substitutes to fill vacancies: criminals, debtors, political prisoners and the mentally ill helped satisfy the insatiable craving for workers.

Historically, powerful nations imported large numbers of military prisoners and civilian slaves. The Egyptians, Mesopotamians, Chinese, Indians, Greeks, Romans, Europeans, Arabs and Africans acquired slaves. To justify the African slave trade, nations developed beliefs that stated the blacks were inferior and had no human rights. Christians used the Bible and the pulpit to validate enslaving black people and said they were protecting Africans from themselves. The Arabs justified the trafficking of human freight by fostering the belief that black people were born to be slaves.

From the seventh to the thirteenth century, Arab caravans moved across the Sahara transporting black cargoes north across the desert for sale in southern Europe. They also drove caravans’ east through Egypt, across the Isthmus of Suez to markets in the Middle East. During the fifteenth century, Portuguese navigators began exploring the coast of West Africa; they began acquiring and transporting black captives back to Europe where they were sold as household servants. The demand for black slaves and African products (palm oil, cotton cloth, animal hides, gold, etc…) led to the development and expansion of the trans-Sahara system. The round-trip from central Africa to the Mediterranean shore and back covered 1,500 miles, the journey took approximately six months. Since the seventh century it has been guesstimated that from eight to ten million Africans were driven across the Sahara and sold as part of the system. As the slave trade became more intense and competitive the treatment of the captives became more brutal and inhumane. Two factors helped stimulate the trade involving African captives: sugar and firearms.

During the Middle Ages, a major challenge for the populations of Europe was preserving meat. In the fall, animals were slaughtered and the meat was packed in salt: a layer of salt, a layer of meat, more salt, etc.… Much of the meat spoiled, becoming rancid and wormy, the taste and smell was nasty. The populace had to tolerate eating spoiled and infested meat because they had nothing else, the smell, taste and appearance were lamentable.

Soldiers marched off to war to reclaim the Holy Land, where Jesus lived and died. Following the Crusades, the soldiers returned carrying spices back to their homes in Europe, two of the most popular were sugar and black pepper. Europeans began using the new spices while preparing food to conceal and improve the taste, immediately food became more palatable and spices became a staple in their cooking and diet. When the Christians were defeated and driven from the Holy Land, the supply of flavorings was cut off and were no longer available. With the sugar cane growing areas off limits in the Middle East, Europeans commenced searching for locations where they could cultivate the sweetener and help satisfy the craving for sugar.

Europeans attempted resolving the voracious demand by cultivating the crop on islands in the Mediterranean such as Crete, Sicily, Corsica and Cyprus and in southern Spain and Portugal. The expansion helped but did not resolve the supply issue, scarcity continued while demand magnified. The Portuguese expanded sugar cane by building plantations on islands off the west coast of Africa: Canary Islands, Madeira, Sao Tome and Cape Verde. Because of the nearness to the African coast, the producers began using African labor. Sugar was cultivated, harvested, refined and transported to Europe; this stimulated increased demand for the sweetener.

The sugar producers did not build plantations in West Africa because, first, the African rulers would not relinquish sovereignty and would not cede land to Europeans to build agricultural estates. The second reason was that black slaves could easily escape and disappear into the locale and never be found and returned. Finally, Europeans had no immunity to tropical diseases such as malaria and yellow fever. The interior of Africa became known as the White man’s grave because of the deadly, contagious diseases contracted by the white visitors.

The European and African plantations helped satisfy the desire but still could not placate the ever-increasing demand for sugar, the supply did not satisfy the colossal desire. In the sixteenth century, the growers moved west across the Atlantic to the New World. The Spanish expanded production to islands in the Caribbean such as Cuba, Jamaica, Puerto Rico and Hispaniola (Haiti and the Dominican Republic) while the Portuguese colonized Brazil and Britain St. Kitts and Barbados. By 1600 approximately 200,000 slaves arrived from Africa, within fifty years the number amplified to 800,000. When slaves were cheap and plenteous most of the imported slaves were males, they were abused, treated badly and were worked to death, the life expectancy was about three years—slaves were plentiful, cheap and could be replaced easily. When demand spiked prices soared, the philosophy changed and more females were carried aboard the slave transports, populations would be increased naturally. The slave trade was outlawed in 1807, although it continued illegally for decades. British war ships patrolled the African coast trying to intercept slave transports sailing across the Atlantic.

The plantation prototype was introduced by the Portuguese. They had experience cultivating sugar on islands in the Mediterranean and isles off the coast of West Africa. The Spanish and British embraced the Portuguese strategies when constructing plantations; they nurtured the cultivation of sugar cane, tobacco, cotton, rice and hemp.

In the United States, the British imported African slaves to create tobacco plantations in the Upper South: Virginia, Maryland, and the Carolinas; the harvested product was exported to Britain. Later the Brits began cultivating rice in the Carolinas and brought African slaves to work in the patties. They did the same in the Deep South growing sugar cane and cotton. Sugar plantations harvested the cane and transformed it into raw sugar which was distilled into rum. After 1800, cotton plantations began spreading throughout the American south-east and south-west. By the start of the Civil War in 1861, there were four million slaves in the South, sixty percent worked on cotton plantations.

A plantation was a large agricultural estate used for the production of cash crops: cotton, sugar, tobacco, rice, hemp, coffee, tea, rubber, fruit, and palm oil. Mega-plantations, like Brierfield, Jefferson Davis’s plantation, had over 200 slaves cultivating cotton on the 1,000-acre estate. Large growers had in excess of fifty slaves, medium owners had between sixteen and fifty slaves and small cultivators had from five to fifteen. A majority of planters had less than ten, five was common. Small farmers owned none.

When Europeans migrated to the New World, they initially attempted to enslave the indigenous Native Americans. The policy failed because the Indians had no natural immunity to the diseases carried and transmitted by whites and because of the traditions of the Indian cultures. First, the natives had no natural resistance to the illnesses introduced by the interlopers, approximately ninety percent of the indigenous populations perished. The second reason was the culture of the Indians. The women did most of the physical labor while men were warriors and hunters, they rarely performed manual labor. With an ever-declining number of workers, Europeans had to find a new source for the workforce. They turned to Africa with its long tradition of slavery; the trans-Atlantic system was born. African slaves had a much better chance of surviving the tropical-humid climate of the Caribbean, northern Latin America and the southern United States because they were impervious to the illnesses that decimated the Indian cultures.

The boundaries of the slave dominion in Africa were the Senegal River in modern Senegal and the Congo River, the southern border of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. These waterways and others allowed black ravagers to penetrate deep into the interior of Africa to capture slaves. Forty slave forts were constructed between the rivers along the coast and on islands in the rivers (Bunce Island, Fort James and Goree are examples). The strongholds were manned by European traders who had autonomy within the walls of the fortification but could not venture into the countryside to capture natives. They paid tribute and bribes to the local chiefs to get preferential treatment. When the quest for slaves began, the kidnappers raided villages near the coast. As the desire for slaves spiraled, marauders began penetrating deeper and deeper into the interior. After four centuries, the plunderers were venturing hundreds of miles into the heartland of the Dark Continent. The captives were chained, bound together and driven west to a preferred fort where they were sold for hard currency or bartered for beads, trinkets, firearms, black powder, shot and rum. Firearms played a significant role in the trafficking of black cargoes. A muzzle loaded flintlock musket was accurate up to fifty yards. This gave the shooter a distinctive advantage over a warrior armed with traditional weapons such as a spear, bow and arrow or war club. Firearms gave one group distinct advantages over another. Many tribes wanted guns to protect themselves from anyone waging war or trying to capture them. The desire for military power and wealth motivated many tribes to engage in the slave trade. The plantation system needed a steady stream of slaves. When slaves were plentiful prices were low; when demand increased the cost escalated, competition became keen and ruthless.

Slavery has existed for several thousand years in Africa; prejudice and hatred between rival ethnic groups has existed for centuries. Natives from one group raided villages of another and forced captives into slavery. The practice among Africans was not brutal like the system practiced by Europeans in the New World. Slaves in Africa were not treated inhumanly, could earn their freedom and even own property.

When the trans-Atlantic system was extended to provide slaves for the sugar growers in the Caribbean and the cotton, rice, sugar and tobacco plantations in southern states, as rivalry and competition intensified the trade became more violent, lacking feeling and compassion for pain and suffering. Villagers were captured, driven to the coast under inhumane conditions; the prisoners experienced unsympathetic suffering over the brutality and lack of compassion. When a prisoner could not keep up or was too weak to continue, they were left on the side of the trail to die.

Ship captains sailed up and down the west coast of Africa stopping at forts to negotiate the purchase of slaves. Some traders operated independently hiding along the coast. When a ship was sighted, they lit a fire and the smoke alerted the ship’s captain they were there and had slaves to sell. A boat was lowered into the water and rowed to shore where an exchange was bartered. Captives from certain tribes had a higher value because they were larger, more muscular, and had a stronger work ethic. Others came out of a warrior society where men were highly skilled in the art of war and killing. Women labored in the fields and rice patty’s and performed the labor-intensive tasks. To accumulate a full cargo of slaves could take up to six months. The reason was a ship’s captain did not want a cargo of men from the same tribe who could communicate; the men were warriors and had little fear of death. If prisoners spoke the same language, they could communicate and plot mutiny against the crew, they were seen as a threat. The ship’s crew made sure the ethnic groups were dispersed throughout the hold so they could not converse and plot. The crew used scarification, tattoos and language to help identify various ethnic groups.

A captain stopped at a fort and negotiated the purchase of a few slaves, acquiring from one to three or up to a dozen. This was repeated until the storage hold was filled to capacity or it was simply time to set sail for the New World based on the amount of time the slaves were chained below deck, the longer the confinement the poorer the condition of the cargo.

The ship and crew were at the highest risk when anchored off the coast of Africa. The supreme menace was tropical