Changing the Game: Title IX, Gender, and College Athletics

By Thomas S. Bremer and Abigail Perkiss

Changing the Game is set at a fictional university in the mid-1990s. A debate over the role of athletics quickly expands to encompass demands that women's sports and athletes receive more resources and opportunities. The result is a firestorm of controversy on and off campus. Drawing on congressional testimonies from the Title IX hearings, players advance their views in student government meetings, talk radio shows, town meetings, and impromptu rallies. As students wrestle with questions of gender parity and the place of athletics in higher education, they learn about the implementation—and implications—of legal change in the United States.

• Language: English
• Publisher: The University of North Carolina Press
• Release date: Jul 1, 2022
• ISBN: 9781469672311

Thomas S. Bremer

Kelly McFall is professor of history at Newman University.

Book preview

PROLOGUE

Its September in New England—your favorite time of year. Growing up in Tempe, Arizona, you always craved the changing seasons. On TV, winter always had snow, spring was green, summer was hot, and fall… well, fall offered crisp air and orange leaves and drinking hot chocolate at football games. With the start of the school year, you can almost taste it. The hint of bite in the air. Plans in the works for the homecoming tailgate.

When you were a kid, you and your dad went to every one of the Arizona State University Sun Devils football games. You were in the crowd in Tucson when they beat the University of Arizona to win the Pac-10 championship in 1986 and were cheering from your living room when they beat Michigan the following month in the Rose Bowl.

But still, watching football in shorts and a T-shirt never felt quite right. You wanted those snowy winters and lush summers. You wanted to go to a game bundled up in three layers, steam misting from your mouth with each breath.

It was one of the things that drew you to Massachusetts when you began looking at colleges; and when you sent in your initial deposit, your first purchase was that bulky hooded sweatshirt, perfect for long hours at the stadium on Saturday afternoons.

First, though, you need to make it through the initial few weeks of junior year.

As part of a project for your history seminar on the civil rights era, you need to interview someone about growing up in the 1950s and 1960s, so last week, you called your mom and asked about her life. You wanted to start with something simple to ease into the conversation, so you asked your mom about her hobbies growing up.

I took piano lessons from the time I was six or seven years old, she recalled. "And I liked to dance. My friends and I would go to dances every Saturday night. And we watched American Bandstand every week. We spent hours and hours dancing and listening to music."

What about sports? you asked her. Were you on any teams in high school?

Oh no, she replied, matter-of-factly. We didn’t have any sports teams for girls back then.

No teams for girls? you responded.

How could that be?

When you were a kid, all of your friends played sports. Your T-ball team was coed, and for every guy who played Pee Wee football, there was a girl who swam or played soccer or did gymnastics.

You can’t imagine anything different.

Your mom opened her high school yearbook, which she had dug out just for the interview. Well, she said, we had synchronized swimming. And there were cheerleaders.

You could hear her leafing through the pages of the old book. She described for you the grainy black-and-white photos of smiling girls in old-fashioned pleated skirts. It sounded like something out of a movie.

Did you wish it were different? you asked.

I was always a really fast runner, she reflected. If I were your age now, I would join the cross-country team or go out for track. But back then, those teams didn’t exist for girls. We didn’t really even think about it as a possibility.

After you finished the interview, you hung up the phone and thought about the conversation. You had assumed that your interview would be about the civil rights movement, the women’s movement, the Vietnam War—the big events of the time period (and the ones highlighted on your syllabus). But mom was talking about what life was like for regular people, the ones going to school and hanging out with friends and not worrying about politics and war. Being a kid was so different back then.

You felt sorry for your mom, after your talk; you felt bad about all the things she’d missed out on—the experience of being on a team, of that perfect game, even of the epic loss. It’s amazing how much has changed, you thought. When you were in high school, your girlfriend was the star point guard on the basketball team. They were one of the top teams in the state, and four of the starting five are playing for Division 1 programs now.

You look down at your watch. Forty minutes until your civil rights era class, just enough time to grab a sandwich and finish up the last of your reading. You walk across the quad and notice a steady stream of people heading toward the Price Auditorium. You don’t pay much attention at first; there’s always some big lecture taking place. You wave to your buddies from the basketball team. They have a shot at the conference title this year. You were never good enough to play college ball, but your roommate sits on the bench so you’ve gotten to know some of the guys.

You grab a steak and cheese in the cafeteria and pull out your history textbook. It’s loud in here today—everyone seems excited to be back from the break. You feel it too. You had a great summer, but as much as you love your family, by August, you felt ready to get back to your dorm, your friends, and the cute sophomore you just started hanging out with. She’s on the swim team, and they’re already having informal two-a-day practices, which have her pretty wiped. You brought a video and popcorn to her dorm room last weekend, for a quiet night in.

It’s funny how quickly this place has started to feel like home.

You close your history book and pack up. As you make your way over toward class, you look back at the people walking into the auditorium. You notice your history professor hurry through the door. Wait! Don’t you have class in ten minutes?

You hustle over to Taylor Hall. When you arrive at your classroom, you see a sign on the door.

HIST 340 will meet today in the Price Auditorium for a community conversation on the mission of athletics at UNEU.

Huh? What does this have to do with the civil rights movement?

You turn around and walk back toward the auditorium.

And could this talk affect your beloved UNEU football team?

HOW TO REACT

Reacting to the Past is a series of historical role-playing games. Students are given elaborate game books that place them in moments of historical controversy and intellectual ferment. The class becomes a public body of some sort; students, in role, become particular persons from the period, often as members of a faction. Their purpose is to advance a policy agenda and achieve their victory objectives. To do so, they will undertake research and write speeches and position papers; and they will also give formal speeches, participate in informal debates and negotiations, and otherwise work to win the game. After a few preparatory lectures, the game begins, and the players are in charge; the instructor serves as adviser or gamemaster. Outcomes sometimes differ from the actual history; a postmortem session at the end of the game sets the record straight.

The following is an outline of what you will encounter in Reacting and what you will be expected to do. While these elements are typical of every Reacting game, it is important to remember that every game has its own special quirks.

Game Setup

Your instructor will spend some time before the beginning of the game helping you understand the historical background. During the set-up period, you will read several different kinds of materials, including

•The game book (from which you are reading now), which contains historical information, rules and elements of the game, and essential documents

•Your role sheet, which describes the historical person you will play in the game

You may also be required to read primary and secondary sources outside the game book (perhaps including one or more accompanying books), which provide additional information and arguments for use during the game. Often you will be expected to conduct research to bolster your papers and speeches.

Read all of this contextual material and all of these documents and sources before the game begins. And just as important, go back and reread these materials throughout the game. A second reading while in role will deepen your understanding and alter your perspective: ideas take on a different aspect when seen through the eyes of a partisan actor.

Players who have carefully read the materials and who know the rules of the game will invariably do better than those who rely on general impressions and uncertain recollections.

Game Play

Once the game begins, certain players preside over the class sessions. These presiding officers may be elected or appointed. Your instructor then becomes the game-master (GM) and takes a seat in the back of the room. While not in control, the GM may do any of the following:

•Pass notes to spur players to action

•Announce the effects of actions taken inside the game on outside parties (e.g., neighboring countries) or the effects of outside events on game actions (e.g., a declaration of war)

•Interrupt and redirect proceedings that have gone off track

Presiding officers may act in a partisan fashion, speaking in support of particular interests, but they must observe basic standards of fairness. As a failsafe device, most Reacting games employ the Podium Rule, which allows a player who has not been recognized to approach the podium and wait for a chance to speak. Once at the podium, the player has the floor and must be heard.

To achieve your objectives (outlined in your role sheet) you must persuade others to support you. You must speak with others, because never will a role sheet contain all that you need to know and never will one faction have the strength to prevail without allies. Collaboration and coalition building are at the heart of every game.

Most role descriptions contain secret information you are expected to guard. Exercise caution when discussing your role with others. You may be a member of a faction, which gives you allies who are generally safe and reliable, but even they may not always be in total agreement with you.

In games where factions are tight-knit groups with fixed objectives, finding a persuadable ally can be difficult. Fortunately, every game includes roles that are undecided (or indeterminate) about certain issues. Everyone is predisposed on certain issues, but most players can be persuaded to support particular positions. Cultivating these players is in your interest. (By contrast, if you are assigned an indeterminate role, you will likely have considerable freedom to choose one or another side in the game; but often, indeterminates have special interests of their own.)

Make friends and find supporters. Before you speak at the podium, arrange to have at least one supporter second your proposal, come to your defense, or admonish those in the body not paying attention. Feel free to ask the presiding officer to assist you, but appeal to the GM only as a last resort.

Immerse yourself in the game. Regard it as a way to escape imaginatively from your usual self—and your customary perspective as a college student in the twenty-first century. At first, this may cause discomfort because you may be advocating ideas that are incompatible with your own beliefs. You may also need to take actions that you would find reprehensible in real life. Remember that a Reacting game is only a game and that you and the other players are merely playing roles. When others offer criticisms, they are not criticizing you as a person. Similarly, you must never criticize another person in the game. But you will likely be obliged to criticize their persona. (For example, never say, Sally’s argument is ridiculous. But feel free to say, Governor Winthrop’s argument is ridiculous, though you would do well to explain exactly why!) When spoken to by a fellow player—whether in class or out of class—always assume that person is speaking to you in role.

Help create this world by avoiding the colloquialisms and familiarities of today’s college life. Remember your role. While a student of the 90s might open a speech with hi, guys, a dean or trustee would not. Similarly, remember that it is inappropriate to trade on out-of-class relationships when asking for support within the game. (Hey, you can’t vote against me. We’re both on the tennis team!)

Reacting to the Past seeks to approximate of the complexity of the past. Because some people in history were not who they seemed to be, so too some roles in Reacting may include elements of conspiracy or deceit. (For example, Brutus did not announce to the Roman Senate his plans to assassinate Caesar.) If you are assigned such a role, you must make it clear to everyone that you are merely playing a role. If, however, you find yourself in a situation where you find your role and actions to be stressful or uncomfortable, tell the GM.

Game Requirements

Your instructor will explain the specific requirements for your class. In general, a Reacting game will require you to perform several distinct but interrelated activities:

•Reading: This standard academic work is carried on more purposefully in a Reacting course, since what you read is put to immediate use.

•Research and Writing: The exact writing requirements depend on your instructor, but in most cases you will be writing to persuade others. Most of your writing will take the form of policy statements, but you might also write autobiographies, clandestine messages, newspaper articles, or after-game reflections. In most cases, papers are posted on the class website for examination by others. Basic rules: Do not use big fonts or large margins. Do not simply repeat your position as outlined in your role sheet; you must base your arguments on historical facts as well as ideas drawn from assigned texts, and from independent research. (Your instructor will outline the requirements for footnoting and attribution.) Be sure to consider the weaknesses in your argument and address them; if you do not, your opponents will.

•Public Speaking and Debate: Most players are expected to deliver at least one formal speech from the podium (the length of the game and the size of the class will affect the number of speeches). Reading papers aloud is seldom effective. Some instructors may insist that students instead speak freely from notes. After a speech, a lively and even raucous debate will likely ensue. Often the debates will culminate in a vote.

•Strategizing: Communication among students is a pervasive feature of Reacting games. You should find yourself writing emails, texting, and attending meetings on a fairly regular basis. If you do not, you are being outmaneuvered by your opponents.

Skill Development

A recent Associated Press article on education and employment made the following observations:

The world’s top employers are pickier than ever. And they want to see more than high marks and the right degree. They want graduates with so-called soft skills—those who can work well in teams, write and speak with clarity, adapt quickly to changes in technology and business conditions, and interact with colleagues from different countries and cultures. … And companies are going to ever-greater lengths to identify the students who have the right mix of skills, by observing them in role-playing exercises to see how they handle pressure and get along with others … and [by] organizing contests that reveal how students solve problems and handle deadline pressure.

Reacting to the Past, probably better than most elements of the curriculum, provides the opportunity for developing these soft skills. This is because you will be practicing persuasive writing, public speaking, critical thinking, problem solving, and collaboration. You will also need to adapt to changing circumstances and work under pressure.

PART 2: HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

CHRONOLOGY

SPORTS, GENDER, AND EQUALITY: THE ORIGINS OF TITLE IX

The history of women in sports is one marred by waves of exclusion and discrimination, but it is also marked by moments of celebration, empowerment, and the creation of alternate spaces for competition. In 776 B.C.E., for example, women were excluded from the first Olympic Games in the Greek republic. In response, they developed the Games of Hera (or Heraean Games), an all-female athletic competition named in tribute to the Greek goddess of women. More than two millennia later, when the Olympics were reincarnated in 1896 in their modern guise, Charles Pierre de Frédy, Baron de Coubertin, the founder of the International Olympic Committee, famously argued that including women would be impractical, uninteresting, unaesthetic, and incorrect. Yet the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries saw the emergence of a small cadre of elite women breaking barriers in the worlds of sports and competition. In 1722, British boxer Elizabeth Wilkinson entered the ring for the first time. In 1804, Alicia Meynell of England became the first known female jockey to compete in horse racing. In 1866, Vassar College, which opened its doors a year earlier as an all-women’s school, founded the first amateur women’s basketball team in the United States.

A century later, as you’ll read later, in the United States and around the world, women were breaking down barriers in the workplace, the legal system, and the bedroom. In the early 1970s, they successfully pushed for change in higher education as well. With the passage of Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972, federally funded educational institutions were forbidden from discriminating against students or employees on the basis of their sex.

No person in the United States shall, on the basis of sex, be excluded from participation in, be denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any education program or activity receiving Federal financial assistance.

Title IX created the first federally mandated proscription on gender inequality in education. The law had particular resonance in the realm of athletics. Suddenly, schools were required